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N.C.  STATE   UNIVERSITY     D.H.  HILL  LIBRARY 


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Date  Due 


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Cfje  Htural  Science  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 


FORAGE    CROPS 


Cfte  Sural  Science  ^ertea 

The  Soil 

The  Spraying  of  Plants. 

Milk  and  Its  Products. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The  Principles  of  Agriculture. 

Rural  Wealth  and  Welfaue. 

The  Farmstead. 

The  Principles  of  Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm  Poultry. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals. 

The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage. 

The  Care  of  Animals. 

The  Horse. 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm. 

Forage  Crops. 


FORAGE  CROPS 


FOR   SOILING,   SILAGE,   HAY 
AND   PASTURE 


BY 
EDWARD   B.  VOOBHEES,  D.Sc. 

DIRECTOR    OP    THE    NEW    JERSEY    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS,   AND 
PROFESSOR    OP    AGRICULTURE    IN    RUTGERS    COLLEGE 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LOIS  DON:    MACMILLAN    &   CO.,  LTD. 

1907 

All  rights  reserved 


j^T 


Copyright,  1907 
By   THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 


Set  up  and  eleetrotyped 
Published  September,  1907 


fltiumt  JHrasaut  |JrrHH 
J.  He 


PREFACE 

This  work  is  intended  to  give  brief  and  practical 
farming  suggestions  that  will  be  helpful  in  the 
growing  and  using  of  forage  crops.  Special  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  soiling  crops  and  to  rota- 
tions, in  order  to  suggest  a  continuous  supply  of 
forage  throughout  the  growing  season,  a  subject 
of  increasing  importance  to  dairy  farmers  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  cities. 

These  suggestions  for  both  crops  and  rotations 
have  been  found  to  be  satisfactory  in  practice,  but 
the  work  must  be  carefully  planned  if  it  is  to  prove 
successful.  The  systems  of  forage -crop  rotations 
here  outlined  are  intensive,  and  to  secure  the  full 
benefits  from  their  adoption  the  cropping  must  be 
accompanied  by  liberal  use  of  manures  and  fertil- 
izers and  by  extra  good  tillage. 

The  suggested  improvements  in  the  systems  of 
rotation  for  general  farm  practice,  where  grain 
crops  are  the  chief  object,  have  also  been  found  to 
be  practicable  for  many  conditions,  although  they 


M 


190- 


VI  PREFACE 

are  yet  largely  experimental,  and  in  use  mainly  on 
small  farms;  their  adoption,  however,  would  result 
both  in  increasing  the  yield  and  quality  of  forage 
from  a  given  area,  and,  if  judiciously  carried  out, 
result  in  a  better  preparation  of  the  land  for  grain 
crops. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  discuss  all  crops 
that  may  be  used  for  forage,  although  those  which 
have  been  found  of  service  under  special  condi- 
tions have  been  included,  as,  for  example,  the 
millets,  kafirs  and  a  few  of  the  less  well-known 
grasses.  The  data  in  reference  to  these,  however, 
have  been  drawn  largely  from  the  experience  of 
others.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
legumes,  as  their  use  is  of  the  utmost  value  in 
any  system  of  forage  cropping,  and  many  of  those 
recently  introduced  possess  such  habits  as  to  per- 
mit their  use  without  interfering  with  regular  grain- 
crop  rotations. 

E.  B.  VOGRHEES. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J„ 
Mai/,  1D07. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    I 

PAGE 

General  View  of  Forage  Crops ,  ....  1-12 

The  measures  of  value  in  forage  crops 2 

Importance  of  succulent  foods  for  dairy  cows G 

Regional  questions 9 

Pastures  and  meadows 11 


CHAPTER   II 

Forage  Crops  for  Hay  and  for  Improving  the  Land  .    .  13-2G 

Hay  standards 15 

Improvement  of  rotations 17 

Land  and  seeding 23 

Harvesting  and  curing 25 

CHAPTER    III 

Forage  Crops  for  Soiling 27-45 

Balanced  rations 28 

Soiling  versus  pasturing 30 

Cost  of  nutrients  in  soiling  crops 32 

Experiments  to  determine  the  cost  of  nutrients     ....  33 

Rotation  systems 34 

The  rotations  must  be  carefully  planned      38 

Plant-food  must  be  provided 40 

Preparation  of  land 41 

Cover-crops 42 

Forage-crop  rations 43 

Summer  silage 44 

(vii) 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    IV 

PAGE 

Straw  Cereals  and  Green -Forage  Grasses 46-72 

Rye  as  a  forage  crop 40 

Wheat  as  a  forage  crop 56 

Oats  as  a  forage  crop GO 

Barley 64 

Orchard -grass      65 

Italian  rye-grass 70 

CHAPTER   V 

Millets  and  Teosinte      73-04 

Barnyard  millet      74 

Foxtail  millets 80 

Pearl  or  c  t-tail  millet 85 

Broom-corn  or  proso  millet 0;) 

Teosinte 94 


CHAPTER    VI 

The  Kafir  and  Durra  Corns 95-121 

Kafir  corn  for  dry  regions      102 

CHAPTER    VII 
The  Sweet  Sorghums 122-131 

CHAPTER    VIII 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn 132-152 

Corn  fur  green  forage  or  soiling 133 

Sweet  corn  for  green  forage      1  13 

Corn-stalks  or  stover 1-5  9 


CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER    IX 

PAGE 

Corn  for  Silage 153-166 

CHAPTER    X 
Leguminous  Forage  Crops 167-173 

CHAPTER    XI 

Combination  Crops  with  Legumes 175-208 

Oats-and-peas  for  forage 175 

Oats -and- vetch 187 

Barley-and-peas 189 

Warm-season  combinations 190 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers 194 

CHAPTER   XII 
Alfalfa 209-230 

CHAPTER   XIII 

The  Clovers 231-252 

The  red  clovers 231 

Alsike  clover 240 

Crimson  clover 242 

White  clover 2"il 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Other  Leguminous  Forage  Crops 253-274 

Cowpea 253 

Soybeans 2G4 

Velvet  bean 266 

Vetches 269 

Broad  or  horse  bean 272 

Japan  clover 273 


Xll  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  page 

26.  Matured  kafir  corn  roots 118 

27.  Matured  sorghum  roots 119 

28.  Typical  heads  of  different  varieties  of  sweet  sorghum.     Reading 

from  left  to  right,  the  varieties  are:   (1)  Early  Amber;   (2) 
Black  Dwarf ;    (3)  Kansas  Orange;    (4)  Coleman 124 

29.  Field  of  Orange  sorghum  in  Kansas 127 

30.  Sorghum  at  good  stage  of  maturity  for  soiling 128 

31.  Fodder  corn.     Thoroughbred  White  Flint  in  New  Jersey,  after  a 

crop  of  oats-and-peas,  yielding  twelve  tons  of  green  forage 

to  the  acre 135 

32.  Corn-husker  and  shredder  at  work  (International  Harvester  Co.)  152 

33.  Oats-and-peas 174 

34.  Oats-and-peas  for  soiling  or  for  hay 178 

35.  Oats-and-peas  for  soiling.     A  vigorous  growth  of  both  plants 181 

3G.  Oats-and-peas,  showing  great  vigor  of  the  peas 182 

37.  Oats-and-pea  hay 185 

38.  Oats-and-spring-vetch  for  soiling 188 

39.  Wheat-and-winter-vetch  for  soiling.     A  poor  stand  of  vetch 191 

40.  Wheat-and-winter-vetch.     A  good  stand  of  vetch 192 

41.  Corn-and-cowpeas  for  silage,  the  cowpeas  planted  five  days  after 

the  corn 196 

42.  Corn-and-cowpeas,  planted  after  a  soiling  crop  of  wheat  had  been 

harvested 199 

43.  Cowpeas-and-kafir-corn,  showing  height  and  thickness 200 

'44.  Cowpeas-and-kafir-corn 205 

45.  Sorghum-and-cowpeas,  in  rows,  ready  for  soiling.    Sorghum  alone 

at  the  left;   sorghum-and-cowpeas  at  the  right 206 

4G.  Alfalfa  in  New  Jerse5r,  an  acre  yielding  nineteen  tons  of  green 

forage  a  year 213 

47.  Alfalfa;    first  cutting  in  the  season.      Three  feet   tall  and  very 

thick 220 

48.  First  cutting  of  alfalfa.    Ready  for  soiling  May  27.    New  Jersey.  227 

49.  Field  of  crimson  clover,  grown  as  a  catch-crop  seeded  in  corn  at 

last  cultivation 243 

50.  Crimson  clover  ready  for  soiling,  May  20.    New  Jersey 247 

5 1.  The  cowpea 255 

52.  Cowpeas  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated 259 

53.  Crop  of  cowpeas  for  soiling 260 

54.  Field  of  cowpeas,  seeded  after  oats-and-peas  and  to  be  followed 

by  rye 267 

55.  Rye  after  cowpeas,  without  fertilizer ,,....,.., , 268 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  Xlll 

Fig.  page 

56.  Germination  of  commercial  cabbage  and  kohlrabi  seed  and  num- 

ber of  seeds  in  a  pound  (Cornell  Experiment  Station).  The 
black  bars  show  the  number  of  thousand  seeds  in  a  pound; 
the  light  bars  show  the  number  of  thousand  that  germinated  303 

57.  Solid  (at  the  left)  and  loose  heads  of  cabbage  (Cornell) 305 

58.  Forms  of  cabbage    heads.      In  order:    Flat,  spherical,  obovate, 

oblong,  conical  (Cornell) 307 

53.   White  Vienna  kohlrabi.     It  is  a  heavy  yielder  of  both  tubers  and 
leaves.    Background  of  six-inch  squares  (Cornell  '  xperiment 

Station ) 309 

GO.   .Meadow  of  mixed  grasses:   Timothy,  red-top  and  Kentucky  blue- 
grass 315 

01.  Harvesting  scene  in  meadow  of  mixed  grasses:  Timothy,  red-top 

and  blue-grass 323 

02.  Bromus  inermis  (H.  L.  Bolley) 340 

63.   Field  of  Russian  brorne  grass  {Bromus  inermis) 343 


FORAGE   CEOPS 


CHAPTER   I 

GENERAL    VIEW    OF  FORAGE    CROPS 

The  subject  of  forage  crops  has  grown  rapidly 
in  interest  in  recent  years.  This  is  due  primarily 
to  two  causes,— to  the  general  increase  in  knowl- 
edge of  what  constitutes  a  food,  and  the  best 
method  of  using  it ;  and  to  the  increase  in  demand 
for  dairy  products,  especially  of  whole  milk  in 
large  towns  and  cities,  which  makes  it  desirable 
that  a  larger  supply  of  succulent  food  shall  be 
raised  by  the  farmers  engaged  in  its  production 
near  the  point  of  consumption. 

In  a  narrow  sense,  the  term  "forage  crops"  is 
frequently  applied  only  to  those  crops  that  are 
suitable  for  use  as  green  food,  and  thus  the  term 
conveys  the  idea  of  soiling,  or  carrying  the  foods 
in  their  green  state  from  the  field  to  the  animal. 
In  a  broader  sense,  "forage  crops,"  or  perhaps 
better,  "roughage  crops,"  includes  not  only  those 
suitable  and  adapted  to  soiling  systems,  but 
those  used  as  pasture,  for  hay  and  for  silage;  or, 
in  other  words,  it  includes  the  entire   number  of 

a  U) 

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N.  C.  State  Collar 


2  FORAGE    CHOPS 

crops  of  the  different  classes  used  to  supply  the 
roughage  necessary  in  rations  for  farm  animals, 
as  well  as  to  reduce  the  need  for  purchased  feeds. 
In  this  book  the  term  "forage  crops"  is  used 
in  the  broadest  sense.  The  common -language 
usage  of  forage  (and  which  must  prevail)  would 
make  the  term  a  general  one  applying  to  all 
kinds  of  rough  or  coarse  natural  herbage  food,  such 
as  animals  might  find  freely  provided  by  nature; 
as  hay,  pasture,  herbage  of  maize,  oats,  cowpeas, 
vetch,  sorghum.  "Roughage"  is  practically  synon- 
ymous, but  is  applied  more  particularly  to  the 
coarser  kinds,  that  is,  exclusive  of  hay  and  pas- 
ture. "Fodder"  is  the  dried  or  cured  herbage. 
"Soiling"  is  the  feeding  of  animals  on  green  herb- 
age that  is  cut  and  carried  to  them  (as  distin- 
guished from  pasturing) . 

THE  MEASURES  OF  VALUE  IN  FORAGE  CROPS 

The  value  of  any  forage  crop  is  determined  by 
a  number  of  conditions,  the  first,  and  in  the  long 
run  probably  the  most  important,  being  the  actual 
food,  or  the  amount  of  dry  matter,  that  may  be 
secured  from  a  given  area  and  its  usefulness  as 
measured  by  the  kind  and  proportion  of  the 
nutrients  contained  in  it.  A  second  considera- 
tion is  its  adaptability  and  usefulness  for  the 
various  purposes,  as,  for  example,  for  a  soiling 


MAIZE   AS   AN   EXAMPLE    OF   FORAGE    CROP  3 

crop,  for  pasture,  for  hay  or  for  silage;  third,  its 
time  of  growth  and  season  of  maturity,  as  influ- 
encing its  usefulness  at  specific  times;  and  fourth, 
the  nature  of  the  plant,  as  having  reference  both 
to  its  composition  as  a  food  and  the  influence  that 
its  growth  may  exert  on  the  fertility  of  the  land. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  is  very  highly  regarded 
as  a  general  forage  crop,  because  it  can  be 
grown  successfully  over  a  wide  area.  It  is  capable 
of  producing  a  large  yield  of  nutritive  substance, 
highly  digestible,  very  palatable,  and  relished  by 
all  farm  stock.  It  serves  an  excellent  purpose  as 
a  green  forage  for  use  in  soiling;  it  can  be  so 
grown  as  to  furnish  succulent  food  through  a  com- 
paratively long  period  of  the  growing  season ;  it  is 
the  best  crop  to  supply  succulent  winter  food  in 
the  form  of  silage;  it  also  serves  as  an  excellent 
source  of  both  dried  roughage  and  of  concentrates 
when  ripened  and  handled  in  the  usual  way.  It 
therefore  fulfils  in  a  larger  degree  than  any  other 
one  plant  the  chief  requirements  of  a  forage  crop. 
Because  of  its  vigorous  habit  and  its  season  of 
growth,  it  is  capable  of  acquiring  its  food  from 
sources  not  so  readily  available  to  other  plants; 
therefore,  good  results  can  be  secured  on  land  that 
would  not  be  capable  of  producing  crops  more 
dependent  on  immediately  usable  food  supplies. 

Red  clover  is  another  example  of  a  forage  crop 
that  possesses  valuable  characteristics,    It  can  be. 


4  FORAGE    CROPS 

very  generally  grown,  is  rich  in  nutrients,  pala- 
table, and  capable  of  use  as  a  green  forage  or 
as  hay;  it  possesses  an  important  advantage  in 
being  capable  of  deriving  a  part  at  least  of  the 
nitrogenous  food  necessary  for  its  growth  from  the 
air,  and  for  this  reason  is  regarded  as  an  improving 
rather  than  an  exhausting  crop.  It  supplements 
the  corn  crop  in  composition,  as  well  as  in  its 
power  of  obtaining  nitrogen.  Thus,  in  the  growing 
of  corn  and  clover  in  rotation,  better  rations  are 
obtained  and  the  soil  less  quickly  depleted,  than  if 
corn  alone  is  grown. 

On  the  other  hand,  such  crops  as  rye  and  wheat, 
while  readily  grown,  are  serviceable  only  for  a 
short  period  as  green  forage  or  for  soiling,  and 
are  not  so  generally  useful  in  their  dried  state  as 
corn  or  clover.  Their  usefulness  is  due  chiefly 
to  their  time  of  growth  and  season  of  maturity, 
which  permits  of  their  use  as  green  forage  or  pas- 
ture when  such  crops  as  corn  and  clover  are  not 
yet  ready. 

The  cowpea  possesses  the  characteristics  attrib- 
uted to  the  clover  in  food  acquirements,  but  it  is 
possible  to  grow  it  only  in  the  hot  season,  and  it 
therefore  serves  only  as  a  late  summer  or  fall  food. 

Another  point  of  very  great  importance,  and 
one  which  should  be  observed  in  comparing  the 
various  forage  crops,  is  the  food- content  in  the 
green  state.    Succulence  is  of  course  very  impor- 


SUCCULENT  FORAGE  5 

tant  in  soiling  crops,  but  it  cannot  take  the  place 
of  actual  nutrition;  therefore,  in  measuring  the 
value  of  crops  for  soiling,  those  that  produce  the 
largest  quantity  of  actual  food  per  acre  should  be 
given  the  preference,  other  things  being  equal.  In 
other  words,  the  value  of  a  forage  crop  is  measured 
by  the  dry  matter,  or  food -substance  other  than 
water,  and  not  by  the  ton  basis  without  regard  to 
the  percentage  of  dry  matter.  It  has  been  shown, 
for  example,  that  certain  of  the  crops  which  have 
their  origin  in  hot  climates  make  enormous  yields, 
as  teosinte  and  Pearl  millet,  yet  the  actual  nutri- 
ment produced  by  them  in  a  short  period  is  rela- 
tively much  less  than  from  corn  or  some  other 
crops  whose  natural  habitat  is  the  temperate  zone. 
In  many  cases,  one  ton  of  corn,  when  in  a  state 
suitable  for  use  as  green  forage  or  soiling,  will  con- 
tain twice  as  much  dry  matter  or  digestible  nutri- 
ents as  two  tons  of  these  crops  which  grow  much 
more  luxuriantly  and  are  apparently  superior 
sources  of  food -supply. 

In  comparing  the  values  of  different  forage 
crops,  the  character  of  the  nutritious  materials  of 
the  dry  matter  contained  in  them  should  not  be  for- 
gotten, and  the  influence  of  these  in  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  animal.  It  has  been  very  clearly  shown 
by  nutrition  investigations  that  nutrient  sub- 
stances in  feeds  are  of  two  general  groups  or  classes : 
(1)  Those  containing  a  relatively  large  percentage 


6  FORAGE    CROPS 

of  protein,  of  which  nitrogen  is  the  base;  (2)  those 
containing  a  low  percentage  of  protein,  and,  there- 
fore, usually  richer  in  carbohydrates.  Corn  is  a 
representative  of  the  second  class,  whereas  clover, 
particularly  in  its  green  state,  represents  the  first 
class.  A  judicious  combination  of  these  two  groups 
of  substances  results  in  a  more  economical  feeding 
of  the  animal  than  the  use  of  either  one  or  the 
other  in  too  great  proportion.  In  the  growing  of 
forage  crops,  therefore,  both  classes  should  be  rep- 
resented. For  this  reason,  the  various  crops  are 
classified  and  discussed  in  groups:  (1)  The  group 
including  those  that    belong  to  the  grass  family; 

(2)  those  belonging  to  the  legume  or  clover  family; 

(3)  root  crops;  (4)  and  finally  a  brief  account  of 
permanent  meadows  and  pastures.  All  this  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  discussion  as  to  their  use  in  systems  of 
crop -rotation,  and  how  to  combine  those  of  each 
group  in  order  that  a  continuous  summer  feeding 
for  soiling  purposes  may  be  best  accomplished. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SUCCULENT  FOODS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 

Aside  from  the  mere  question  of  food  production, 
the  interest  in  forage  crops  has  increased  because 
the  results  of  investigations  of  the  dairy  business 
have  shown  that  if  the  product  of  the  cow  is  to  be 
kept  up  to  the  full  standard,  the  animal  must  be 
supplied   with  an    abundance    of    succulent   food 


SUCCULENT  DAIRY  FOODS  7 

throughout  the  entire  year.  Under  old  systems, 
when  definite  areas  were  devoted  to  pasturage  and 
the  entire  supply  of  succulent  food  was  from  this 
source,  animals  were  frequently  poorly  fed,  because 
climatic  conditions  did  not  permit  of  a  continuous 
and  abundant  growth  of  the  various  kinds  of 
pasture.  The  crops  were  frequently  lessened  by 
droughts,  extending  over  shorter  or  longer  periods 
when  the  animals,  not  having  supplementary  food, 
were  either  insufficiently  nourished  or  did  not  have 
food  of  the  right  kind.  In  other  instances,  late 
winter  forage  having  been  exhausted  at  the  usual 
time,  animals  were  turned  out  on  pasture  before  it 
was  abundant  enough  to  supply  the  entire  demands, 
or  when  the  plants  were  so  immature  that,  even 
with  sufficient  bulk,  the  necessary  amount  of  actual 
nutriment  was  not  obtained.  Frequently,  also,  in 
certain  regions  where  river  or  brook  meadows  serve 
as  the  entire  source  of  pasture,  summer  floods  inter- 
fere with  the  continuous  supply  of  food,  because  the 
floods  leave  a  deposit  of  mud  and  silt,  and  three 
or  four  days  are  required  before  the  grass  grows 
sufficiently  to  enable  the  meadow  to  be  fully  pas- 
tured again.  Under  these  circumstances,  animals 
frequently  were  not  sufficiently  nourished.  Often 
heavy  storms  soak  the  ground  so  as  to  make 
the  pastures  wet  and  soggy,  besides  requiring  con- 
siderable energy  on  the  part  of  the  animal  to  move 
about  the  fields,  with  consequent  loss  of  product. 


8  FORAGE    CROPS 

Pastures  were  too  often  the  only  source  of  succu- 
lent food;  no  provision  was  made  for  succulent 
winter  food,  and  the  less  suitable  dry  foods  were 
fed  exclusively.  Under  all  of  these  circumstances, 
where  conditions  were  necessarily  variable,  the  milk 
flow  was  naturally  interfered  with,  and  the  actual 
profits  from  the  dairy  materially  prevented.  There- 
fore, the  introduction  of  new  crops,  or  the  adoption 
of  any  practice  which  will  result  in  providing  for  a 
continuous  supply  of  food,  must  meet  the  approval 
of  progressive  dairymen. 

Aside  from  suggestions  as  to  continuous  supply 
of  food  by  summer  soiling,  the  growing  of  various 
forage  crops  must  have  a  bearing  on  summer  pas- 
ture, and  on  the  necessity  of  supplementary  feeds 
to  meet  the  requirements  when  conditions  are 
unfavorable,  as  well  as  to  provide  succulent  foods 
for  winter.  To  be  sure,  many  farmers  have  it  in 
their  power  to  supply  these  supplementary  feeds 
from  the  regular  crops  at  certain  seasons, — as, 
for  example,  when  corn  reaches  a  sufficient  state 
of  maturity  to  permit  of  its  use,  or  when  grass  or 
clover  from  the  mowing  fields  has  reached  the 
proper  stage  of  maturity, — but  ordinarily  no  pro- 
vision is  made  to  meet  the  possible  demands  at 
such  seasons.  Many  of  the  crops  that  serve  an 
excellent  purpose  for  soiling  may  be  grown  in 
small  areas,  and  thus  provide  food  when  needed; 
and  if  not  needed,  the  crop  may  be  made  into  hay 


FORAGE  IN  DRY  REGIONS  9 

for  dry  roughage  in  winter,  and  thus  reduce  the 
necessity  for  purchasing  feeds. 


REGIONAL   QUESTIONS 

The  semi- arid  regions  of  the  West  present 
peculiar  conditions  in  relation  to  forage.  In  certain 
seasons,  it  is  possible  to  secure  good  yields  of  the 
ordinary  forage  crops ;  but  large  areas  which  were 
formerly  considered  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of 
profitable  cropping  are  now  productive,  because 
of  the  improvements  of  methods  and  of  the  intro- 
duction of  new  plants.  These  lands  have  now  a 
distinct  crop -producing  value,  notwithstanding  the 
shortage  in  rainfall.  Advance  in  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  may  not  make  it  possible  to  grow  corn, 
but  other  well-established  plants,  that  may  be 
called  "dry  weather"  plants,  have  been  introduced, 
and  are  likely  to  be  of  greater  service  than  those 
now  regarded  as  better  adapted  for  conditions 
of  greater  rainfall.  Among  these  plants  are  the 
non- saccharine  and  saccharine  sorghums,  the  first 
of  which  includes  kafir  corn  and  plants  of  that 
type,  and  the  second  the  regular  sugar-producing 
varieties.  It  seems  desirable,  in  a  work  of  this 
kind,  that  special  mention  should  be  made  of  these 
plants  and  their  usefulness  for  these  conditions,  as 
their  value  has  now  been  well  established. 

In  certain  parts   of   the   South,  owing  to   the 


10  FORAGE   CROPS 

character  of  the  climate,  it  has  not  been  possible 
successfully  to  grow  the  grasses  which  do  well  in 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  the  country. 
Timothy,  orchard-grass,  red-top  and  other  grasses, 
which  serve  to  very  good  purpose  for  pasturage  and 
hay  in  the  North  and  West,  are  not  well  adapted 
to  these  regions.  Therefore,  special  crops,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  adapted  to  rotations,  answer 
an  excellent  purpose  in  providing  grass,  where  the 
production  of  live-stock  and  the  maintenance  of 
soil  fertility  are  matters  of  special  importance.  In 
many  of  the  southern  states,  varieties  of  grasses 
have  been  introduced  that  possess  such  peculiari- 
ties of  growth  as  to  enable  them  not  only  to  sur- 
vive but  to  provide  hay  and  pasture  of  an  excel- 
lent quality,  while  at  the  same  time  protecting 
the  soil  from  losses  due  to  washing  from  heavy 
rains,  so  prevalent  in  the  South.  Bermuda  grass 
is  probably  one  of  the  most  useful  for  the  South  ; 
its  characteristics  are  discussed  not  so  much  in 
reference  to  its  place  among  other  forage  crops  in 
a  rotation,  as  to  its  special  usefulness  in  providing 
a  satisfactory  forage  that  is  suitable  for  the  con- 
ditions which  exist  there. 

In  many  of  the  colder  regions,  also,  grasses 
whose  value  is  established  do  not  always  survive 
the  hard  winters.  These  conditions  have  been 
met  by  the  introduction  of  plants  that,  in  a  meas- 
ure, will  take  the  place  of  those  which  are  not  to  be 


GRASS  FOB  AGE  11 

depended  on.  Therefore,  such  kinds  as  have  the 
requisite  hardiness,  although  they  possess  unfavor- 
able characteristics  (as,  for  example,  Bromus  in- 
ermis) ,  have  been  found  to  be  most  useful  in  these 
regions. 

PASTURES    AND   MEADOWS 

One  other  line  of  practice  of  very  great  impor- 
tance is  the  proper  management  and  maintenance 
of  grasses  in  meadows  and  pastures.  Pastures  will 
continue  to  be  the  main  source  of  summer  forage 
for  far  the  greater  number  of  farmers  for  a  long 
time  to  come,  although  it  is  the  exception,  rather 
than  the  rule,  that  permanent  pastures  are  regarded 
as  equally  important  with  other  field  crops.  It  does 
not  seem  to  occur  to  the  farmer  that  pastures,  as 
well  as  other  crops,  must  have  food  in  order  to 
furnish  profitable  results.  As  a  rule,  pastures  are 
allowed  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  they  be- 
come infested  with  weeds,  brambles  and  unpala- 
table grasses,  when  by  a  little  care  the  weeds  may 
be  kept  out  and  sweet  grasses  maintained,  and  the 
yield  largely  increased.  The  necessity  for  growing 
many  of  the  crops  here  discussed  would  in  many 
cases  be  reduced  if  more  attention  were  given  to 
pastures ;  and  the  cost  to  the  farmer  would  be  rela- 
tively much  less  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
expense  of  the  labor  involved  in  pastures  is  a  com- 
paratively small  item.    They  require,  mainly,  that 


12  FORAGE   CROPS 

the  land  shall  be  top-dressed  occasionally  with  lime 
and  commercial  fertilizer  or  manure,  that  wet  places 
be  suitably  drained,  that  fresh  seeding  be  made  as 
occasion  demands  and  that  care  be  exercised  in 
grazing  them.  With  increased  supplies  of  concen- 
trated plant-food,  and  knowledge  concerning  their 
adaptability  and  usefulness  in  feeding  plants,  we 
can  now  give  suggestions  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
great  service  to  the  farmer,  not  only  in  reducing  the 
expense  of  forage,  but  increasing  the  value  of  lands. 
The  same  is  true,  in  a  degree,  as  to  the  main- 
tenance of  mowing  meadows.  Much  labor  would 
be  saved,  and  the  period  of  profitable  cropping 
extended,  if  proper  care  were  taken  in  seeding  down 
the  meadows  and  judicious  treatment  were  given 
them  afterward.  Hay  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
crops,  taken  all  in  all;  yet  less  care  is  expended 
in  the  growing  of  this  crop  than  in  any  of  the 
cultivated  crops.  It  is  regarded  largely  as  a  scav- 
enger crop,  which  gathers  up  that  which  other 
crops  have  not  used;  but  rather  it  should  be  re- 
garded as  a  crop  that  responds  to  proper  treat- 
ment and  that  can  utilize  profitably  direct  applica- 
tions of  plant -food. 


CHAPTER  II 

FORAGE    CROPS  FOR   HAY  AND   FOR   IMPROVING 
THE   LAND 

The  principles  that  underlie  the  successful 
growth  of  forage  crops  apply  quite  as  well  whether 
the  crops  are  used  for  dry  forage  or  for  soiling, 
although  the  number  and  kind  of  crops  used  for  the 
two  purposes  are  not  necessarily  the  same.  The 
advantage  of  a  larger  use  of  land  for  hay  crops 
is  not  determined  by  the  value  of  the  hay  crop 
itself.  In  many  cases,  the  indirect  value  in  soil 
improvement,  which  is  a  result  of  the  frequent 
introduction  into  rotations  of  hay  crops  (both  of 
grasses  and  legumes),  is  quite  as  great  as  the 
direct  value  of  the  forage.  The  more  complete 
covering  of  the  land  with  vegetation  prevents 
losses  that  may  occur  when  the  fields  are  continu- 
ously cropped  with  grain,  without  intermediate 
cover-crops,  or  only  infrequently  cropped  with  hay, 
besides  adding  vegetable  matter,  the  only  natural 
source  of  humus.  This  humus  is  a  result  of  the 
decay  of  the  vegetable  matter  introduced  by  the 
roots  and  stubble;  the  humus  is  especially  valu- 
able when  it  comes  from  the  frequent  introduction 
of  leguminous  crops,  thereby  increasing  the  con- 

(13) 


14  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

tent  of  the  valuable  element  nitrogen.  The  prin- 
cipal reasons  for  the  rotation  of  crops  are  based  on 
these  facts.  The  purpose  of  a  i^otation  is  to  pro- 
long the  period  during  which  profitable  grain  and 
other  crops  may  be  produced  with  the  natural 
supplies  of  plant -food. 

Under  present  conditions  in  this  country,  the 
area  that  is  devoted  to  the  growing  of  hay  is  rela- 
tively large,  although  the  average  yield  per  acre  is 
comparatively  small.  It  is  probable  that  the  main- 
tenance of  fertility  by  means  of  rotations  is  not  so 
greatly  influenced  by  the  growth  of  leguminous  hay 
crops  as  would  be  the  case  if,  aside  from  their 
value  as  forage,  there  were  a  better  understanding 
of  their  usefulness  in  soil  improvement.  The  low 
average  yield  per  acre  of  hay  may  be  ascribed  to 
several  causes,  chief  among  which  are: 

1.  Too  extensive  systems  of  practice,  which  do 
not  provide  for  sufficient  available  plant-food. 

2.  Lack  of  general  information  concerning  the 
habits  of  growth,  usefulness  and  composition  of 
many  grasses  and  legumes,  which  are  well  adapted 
to  special  conditions,  including  lack  of  knowledge 
of  the  best  combinations  of  these  plants. 

3.  Defective  systems  of  rotation,  which  do  not 
provide  for  a  proper  succession  of  cereals  and  le- 
gumes, or  which  leave  the  land  bare  for  long  periods. 

4.  Too  little  care  in  the  preparing  and  manuring 
of  the  land  for  seeding. 


LOW  PRODUCTION   OF   HAT  15 

5.  Careless  and  imperfect  methods  of  seeding. 

In  regions  where  grain  farming  is  practiced,  and 
the  grain  sold,  little  attention  is  given  to  the  hay 
crop;  it  is  not  a  money  crop  in  the  same  sense  as 
corn,  oats  or  wheat.  If  enough  hay  is  procured  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  working  stock,  no  special 
efforts  are  made  to  secure  thick  and  uniform 
stands,  and  thus  the  possibilities  of  the  land  are 
not  realized,  and  the  value  of  the  crop,  as  a  soil 
renovator,  is  not  obtained.  The  small  quantity  of 
manure  that  is  made  is  used  on  corn  or  wheat,  and 
the  grass  or  clover  is  seeded  with  the  wheat,  rye 
or  oats.  By  these  methods  the  added  fertility  in 
the  manure  has  been  largely  used  by  the  preceding 
crop  of  corn,  or  by  the  wheat  or  other  grain  crops, 
and  only  in  exceptional  cases,  especially  in  the 
East  and  South,  is  a  good  catch  secured,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  yield  is  not  large  and  it  is  often  of 
poor  quality.  When  dairying  or  stock- growing  is 
combined  with  grain -farming,  more  attention  is 
naturally  given  to  hay,  although  even  then  the 
corn  crop,  which  is  regarded  as  the  forage  crop 
par  excellence,  is  usually  given  first  consideration. 

Hay  standards 

The  grass  most  generally  grown  for  hay  is 
timothy,  which  is  a  most  excellent  plant  for  the 
purpose,  particularly  from  the  standpoint  of  sala- 


16  FORAGE    CHOPS 

bleness,  as  the  various  grades  fixed  by  hay  associ- 
ations are  based  on  this  variety  as  a  standard. 
Any  admixtures  of  other  grasses  or  clovers  reduce 
the  value  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  timothy 
present.  It  is  probable  that  for  a  long  time  to 
come  timothy  hay  will  remain  the  standard  for 
market  grades.  Notwithstanding  these  facts,  there 
are  a  number  of  other  plants  which,  because  of 
their  adaptability  to  peculiar  conditions,  their 
larger  yields,  and  their  excellent  quality  for  feeding, 
must  sooner  or  later  be  recognized.  Among  these 
are  orchard -grass,  red -top,  Kentucky  blue -grass, 
Italian  rye -grass,  and  others,  some  of  which  are 
discussed  in  some  detail  in  other  parts  of  this 
volume.  The  common  recognition  of  the  value 
of  mixtures  would  result,  in  many  instances,  in 
largely  increasing  the  possible  yield  from  a  defi- 
nite area,  because  mixtures  of  grasses  that  have 
different  characteristics  meet  and  average  up  the 
inequalities  in  seasons,  soils  and  other  conditions. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  legumes:  many  are  suit- 
able for  mixtures,  and  they  improve  the  feeding 
value  of  the  hay  at  the  same  time. 

Until  recently,  red  clover  has  been  the  only 
member  of  the  legume  family  extensively  used  for 
forage.  It  is  well  adapted  to  rotation- cropping, 
can  be  grown  on  most  soils,  and  is  a  most  excel- 
lent forage  for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock,  but  it  can- 
not fulfil  all  requirements.    Alsike  clover,  mam- 


ROTATION  PRACTICE  17 

moth  clover,  cowpea,  soybean,  and  spring  and 
winter  vetch  are  legumes  that  possess  similar 
qualities  from  the  feeding  standpoint,  and  which, 
because  of  their  habits  of  growth,  supplement  the 
red  clover  in  improving  rotations,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  permit  a  much  larger  production 
of  forage  from  a  unit  of  land.  Alfalfa  also  belongs 
to  this  group,  and  is  in  many  respects  superior  to 
any  of  them;  but  because  it  grows  more  rapidly 
and  is  perennial  in  its  habits,  it  is  not  so  well 
suited  for  mixtures  or  for  rotations. 

Improvement  of  rotations 

In  this  country,  extensive  or  large- area  systems 
of  farming  are  more  generally  adopted  than  inten- 
sive systems,  and  the  crops  are  usually  the  cereals, 
as  maize,  oats,  wheat  and  barley.  These  crops 
must  depend  on  soil  sources  almost  exclusively  for 
their  food  supply,  as  the  manures  are  made  from 
a  limited  number  of  animals,  and  those  secured  in 
purchased  supplies  are  not  universally  used. 

A  rotation  very  generally  adopted  in  the  East 
and  central  West  is  corn,  oats,  wheat,  hay,  clover, 
or  clover  and  timothy  mixed.  This  is  not,  in  all 
cases,  a  better  rotation  than  any  other,  but  it 
allows  the  growing  of  a  larger  proportion  of  grain 
crops.  One  method  in  such  a  rotation  is  to  apply 
the  manure  on  the  sod  for  corn,  which  is  harvested 


18  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

in  the  early  fall  and  the  land  left  bare  of  vegeta- 
tion until  spring,  when  it  is  seeded  with  oats  with- 
out further  manuring.  After  the  oats  are  harvested 
the  land  either  grows  weeds,  which  in  this  case  are 
of  some  value,  or  is  plowed  and  allowed  to  lie  bare 
until  September  or  October,  when  it  is  seeded  with 
wheat.  An  even  less  rational  method,  from  the 
standpoint  of  economical  use  of  the  manure,  be- 
cause it  results  in  loss  of  fertility  elements,  is  to 
apply  manure  to  the  wheat  instead  of  the  corn. 
By  this  system,  but  one,  or  at  most  two  hay  crops 
(if  the  second  crop  is  harvested)  are  taken,  and 
the  land  has  but  one  year  of  partial  rest  in  four; 
besides,  there  are  two  periods  in  the  rotation  when 
the  land  is  bare,  and  suffers  loss  by  leaching, 
blowing  or  washing,  and  possible  lowering  of  "con- 
dition" due  to  the  destruction  of  organisms. 

The  above  rotation  is  inexpensive  of  labor,  and 
may  prove  profitable  for  grain-growing  for  a  long 
time,  on  lands  originally  very  fertile;  but  the  fer- 
tility may  be  improved  by  the  introduction  of 
cover- crops  and  catch -crops,  which  will  prevent 
possible  losses  of  constituents,  but  which  need  not 
reduce  the  number  of  grain  crops,  and  besides  add 
one  or  more  crops  of  hay.  To  accomplish  this,  the 
first  crop  (corn)  may  be  seeded  with  the  rye  or 
wheat  before,  or  immediately  after,  it  is  harvested. 
The  rye  will  absorb  and  retain  the  nitrates  formed 
in  late  summer  and   not   used  by  the  corn,  and 


20  FORAGE  CROPS 

also  bind  the  soil  and  prevent  the  washing  and 
blowing  away  of  the  finer  particles  in  winter  and 
spring,  thus  keeping  the  land  in  better  condition 
for  the  oats  crop,  besides  accumulating  organic 
matter. 

If  either  clover  or  the  Essex  rape  is  seeded 
with  the  oats,  the  land  does  not  lie  bare  and  ex- 
posed to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  through  the  hot 
season,  but  is  shaded  with  plants,  which  keep  it 
cooler,  and  which  are  useful  for  pasture  until  it  is 
time  to  prepare  for  wheat.  The  wheat  crop  is 
usually  harvested  early  in  July;  if  immediately 
afterward  the  land  is  thoroughly  disked,  and  seeded 
with  cowpeas,  the  land  will  again  be  covered  dur- 
ing the  hot  months  of  July  and  August,  and  this 
will  prevent,  in  large  part,  the  possible  destruction 
of  bacteria,  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  crop  of 
hay,  which,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  fertility, 
should  yield  from  one  to  two  tons  per  acre,  and  be 
harvested  in  time  for  seeding  to  timothy  and  clover. 
This  better  preparatory  treatment  of  the  land  will 
encourage  a  better  germination  and  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  crop  in  the  fall.  The  crop  will  reach 
maturity  at  the  usual  time  for  hay- making,  and 
since  the  object  sought  is  the  hay  crop,  and  the 
land  is  entirely  given  up  to  this  object,  it  is  likely 
to  make  a  better  catch  and  be  freer  from  weeds 
than  if  seeded  with  a  grain  crop.  This  method  has 
proved  to  be  entirely  feasible  in  practice.    With 


IMPROVING    THE   HAY   CROP  21 

but  slight  expense  for  labor  and  seed  it  makes  pos- 
sible a  larger  yield  of  forage  in  the  same  period 
and  at  the  same  time  increases  rather  than  reduces 
fertility. 

When  oats  is  not  a  profitable  grain  crop,  the 
rotation  may  be  changed  so  as  to  have  two  crops 
of  maize  in  succession,  a  method  which  has  been 
practiced  with  great  success,  particularly  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  parts  of 
Virginia.  This  system  requires  that  crimson  clover 
be  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  which 
will  make  a  crop  of  hay  by  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  May,  or  in  time  to  plant  corn  again,  which 
crop  may  be  removed  in  time  to  seed  to  wheat. 
After  harvesting  the  wheat,  the  land  may  be  disk- 
harrowed  and  seeded  with  cowpeas  or  soybeans, 
which  may  be  made  into  hay,  and  the  land  then 
seeded  to  clover  and  timothy  as  in  the  first 
example. 

The  value  of  the  frequent  introduction  of  cow- 
peas  and  soybeans,  which  not  only  keep  the  land 
occupied,  but  add  to  the  forage  capacity  of  the 
farm,  can  hardly  be  overestimated,  as  the  land 
increases  in  productive  value  by  the  added  crops 
of  hay,  and  it  is  improved  both  because  of  the  con- 
tinuous occupation  with  crops,  and  the  added 
nitrogen  derived  from  the  air;  all  this  aids  in  the 
growth  of   cereals,  and   results   in  a  larger  pro- 


22  FORAGE   CROPS 

duction  of  manure,  due  to  feeding  the  extra  hay. 
In  these  improved  rotations,  the  same  number  of 
grain  crops  are  secured,  besides  a  crop  of  hay  in 
the  first  year  and  two  crops  in  the  second  year. 

When  wheat  and  corn  are  the  main  crops,  as  in 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Iowa,  the  rotation  may 
be  improved,  also,  by  seeding  cowpeas  or  soy- 
beans after  the  wheat  is  removed.  After  the  hay 
is  harvested,  rye  may  be  seeded,  which  covers  the 
land  in  winter;  it  may  be  plowed  down  as  a  green 
crop  for  corn,  and  wheat  be  seeded  after  the  corn. 
Hopkins,  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  sug- 
gests a  four -year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat,  corn  and 
clover,  including  the  cowpea  or  soybean  as  a  catch- 
crop  for  hay,  the  legumes  to  be  fed  as  hay  or  pas- 
ture, and  the  manure  returned  to  the  land.  Or  a 
five-year  rotation  may  be  used  in  which  timothy  is 
seeded  with  clover,  and  the  land  pastured  the  fifth 
year.  These  rotations  greatly  increase  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  land  for  hay-growing,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  prevent  rapid  exhaustion.  These 
suggestions  may  undoubtedly  be  adopted  with  profit 
throughout  the  other  corn -growing  and  wheat- 
growing  states  of  the  central  Mississippi  valley. 

In  the  southern  states,  there  has  been  a  short- 
age of  hay  crops,  because  the  tendency  has  been 
to  grow  cotton  and  tobacco  continuously,  or  with 
only  infrequent  rotation  when  corn  and  cotton  are 
raised.    The  advantages  of  the  introduction  of  the 


IMPROVED   HAT  ROTATIONS  23 

cowpea,  soybean,  vetch  and  clover  in  a  rotation, 
and  used  as  hay,  are  now  recognized  in  part,  and 
wherever  used  they  result  in  largely  increasing 
the  amount  of  feed,  without  decreasing  the  total 
yield  of  corn,  cotton  or  tobacco. 

An  improved  rotation,  recommended  by  the 
Alabama  Station,  is  (first  year)  corn  with  cow- 
peas  planted  between  the  corn  rows  in  May  or 
June;  second  year,  fall-sown  oats  or  wheat,  fol- 
lowed by  cowpeas  in  June;  third  year,  cotton. 
The  cowpeas,  after  the  crop  of  small  grains  is 
removed,  are  usually  cut  for  hay,  but  may  be 
picked  for  seed,  or  pastured,  or  plowed  under  in 
January  or  February. 

In  California,  and  a  number  of  the  north- 
western states,  continuous  cropping  has  been 
generally  practiced,  although  the  desirability  of 
rotation  is  becoming  apparent,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  sugar-beet  and  wheat-growing. 

The  main  point,  in  all  rotations,  from  the 
standpoint  of  forage,  is  so  to  adjust  the  rotations 
as  to  keep  the  land  occupied,  without  sacrificing 
in  any  great  degree  the  number  of  cereal  or  root- 
crops  that  may  be  grown. 


Land  and  seeding 

Another     important     consideration    which    is 
beginning  to  receive  the  attention  that  the  condi- 


24  FORAGE   CROPS 

tions  warrant,  is  the  complex  question  of  adapta- 
tion of  soil,  and  its  preparation,  for  different 
kinds  of  hay  crops ;  for  while  many  of  the  grasses 
and  legumes  may  be  grown  successfully  on  a 
wide  variety  of  soils,  they  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  certain  specific  conditions.  Red  clover,  for 
example,  will  grow  well  on  lands  adapted  to 
corn.  Alsike  clover  will  succeed  on  those  that 
are  colder  and  more  compact  and  not  so  suitable 
for  the  red  clover.  Timothy  is  adapted  to  lands 
rich  in  humus,  and  to  those  which,  because  of 
their  higher  content  of  clay,  are  colder  than  those 
most  suitable  for  clover.  Therefore,  mixtures  of 
timothy,  red  clover  and  alsike  are  much  safer 
than  either  one  alone,  under  general  conditions, 
because  if  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  one 
kind  they  may  be  favorable  for  another. 

In  seeding  any  of  these  crops,  the  land  should 
always  be  well  prepared,  which  means  not  only 
that  it  shall  be  plowed  and  harrowed,  but  that 
it  shall  be  worked  frequently,  so  as  to  compact 
the  soil  and  leave  only  the  surface  fine  and  mel- 
low— the  finer  and  mellower  the  better,  except 
for  soils  that  contain  a  high  content  of  fine  silt, 
in  which  case  it  is  better  not  to  make  the  surface 
too  fine,  else  the  land  is  likely  to  puddle  and  to 
become  so  hard  as  to  prevent  full  germination 
and  to  retard  growth.  Seeding  should  be  care- 
fully  performed.    As    a   rule,   too    little    seed    is 


fKOPEKTr  UMARY 


LAND   AND    HARVESTING    FOB    HAY  25 

used.  However,  when  large  quantities  are  applied, 
the  importance  of  good  preparation  and  fertiliza- 
tion is  more  imperative,  because  with  a  more 
complete  occupation  of  the  land,  there  is  a 
greater  call  for  plant-food  and  moisture.  The 
quantities  of  seed  to  be  sown  will  vary  with  the 
kind  and  the  mixtures  of  seed  and  manures  used, 
matters  which  are  fully  discussed  in  other  chapters. 

Harvesting  and  curing 

Another  matter  of  great  consequence  in  the 
handling  of  forage  crops,  especially  if  the  purpose 
is  to  feed  them  on  the  farm,  is  the  time  of  cut- 
ting. The  largest  quantity  of  digestible  matter 
usually  is  contained  in  the  crop  when  it  is  in 
blossom,  although  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
largest  total  yield  per  acre  will  be  secured  if 
cut  at  that  time.  In  the  harvesting  of  grasses 
for  hay,  whether  they  shall  be  cut  at  their  best 
stage  for  feed  depends  on  whether  the  purpose 
is  to  feed  on  the  farm,  or  to  sell,  the  markets 
demanding  a  more  mature  forage  than  is  best 
for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  The  difficulties  of 
harvesting  are  greater  when  hay  is  cut  for  home 
use  than  for  the  market,  as,  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  growth,  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  water 
in  the  plant,  which  requires  more  handling  than 
when  nearer  ripe. 


26  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

Clover  should  be  cut  in  the  morning,  tedded 
thoroughly,  and  if  possible  raked  into  windrows 
the  afternoon  of  the  same  day.  If  the  day 
following  is  clear,  the  windrows  may  be  thrown 
open  and  tedded  in  the  morning  early,  then  raked 
together  and  put  in  small  cocks  and  allowed  to 
stand  over  night;  the  following  day  they  may 
be  opened  to  the  air,  and  dried  further,  and  the 
crop  housed.  By  this  method,  there  is  little  dan- 
ger of  loss  of  leaves  by  handling,  or  of  deteriora- 
tion in  quality,  because  of  being  exposed  to  sun 
and  dew. 

The  hay  made  from  grasses,  when  cut  at  the 
proper  time,  and  well  cured,  is  especially  suitable 
for  horses  and  cattle,  and  may  be  used  as  the 
main  source  of  roughage  for  these  animals.  For 
dairy  cows,  fattening  stock,  sheep,  swine  and 
young  stock  of  all  kinds,  the  clovers  or  other 
legumes  are  much  better  adapted  for  growth  and 
development  than  the  grasses,  as  they  contain  a 
higher  content  of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  in 
digestible  forms. 

A  judicious  introduction  of  the  different  crops 
into  the  various  rotations,  as  outlined,  will  not 
only  increase  the  possibilities  for  hay- growing, 
but  will  be  an  important  factor  in  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  soils,  now  so  carelessly  and 
wastefully  managed. 


CHAPTER   III 

FORAGE   CROPS  FOR   SOILING 

The  principles  of  feeding  are  the  same  whether 
animals  are  fed  dried  or  succulent  foods.  That  is, 
the  relative  values  of  the  actual  digestible  nutri- 
ents are  not  changed,  nor  are  the  functions  of  the 
nutrients  different  in  the  one  case  from  the  other; 
yet,  in  comparisons  that  have  been  made  of  the 
feeding- value  of  nutrients  contained  in  dry-forage 
rations  with  those  in  green  and  succulent  forage,  it 
has  been  found  that  a  unit  of  digestible  food  of 
the  same  kind  in  the  succulent  ration  has  a  greater 
efficiency  than  a  unit  of  the  same  kind  in  the  dry 
ration.  This  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
a  slightly  greater  expenditure  of  the  total  energy 
contained  in  the  food  is  required  in  the  utilization 
of  a  unit  of  food  than  of  its  equivalent  in  dry 
succulent  food,  with  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  net  energy.  This  fact  has  a  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tion of  soiling,  because  it  enables  the  feeder  to 
utilize  more  completely  the  nutrients  that  are  raised 
on  his  farm.  The  same  facts,  however,  apply  in 
pasturing  as  well  as  in  soiling,  although,  in.  the 
case  of  pasturing,  animals  do  not  always  have  at 
their  command  the  ration  in  its  best  or  most  succu- 

(27) 


28  FORAGE   CHOPS 

lent  form,  for  many  times  it  is  partially  dried  and 
not  very  palatable.  That  is,  it  is  not  possible,  in 
pasturing,  always  to  control  the  conditions  in  such 
a  way  as  to  secure  reasonable  uniformity  in  the 
proportion  of  contained  water,  or  in  the  kind  and 
duality  of  the  nutrients  in  the  food. 

BALANCED   RATIONS 

Another  consideration  in  feeding,  important 
from  the  physiological  standpoint,  is  the  proper 
relation  of  the  kinds  of  nutrients  to  each  other  in 
any  given  food;  from  the  economical  point  of  view, 
this  principle  cannot  always  be  applied  in  soiling 
systems,  although  it  should  always  be  considered. 

It  has  been  very  clearly  demonstrated  that  for 
the  best  results  in  stock -feeding,  there  should  be 
a  reasonably  definite  ratio  between  the  digestible 
nitrogenous  and  the  digestible  non-  nitrogenous 
nutrients.  An  excess  of  the  nitrogenous  nutrients 
usually  causes  a  greater  increase  in  the  cost  of  the 
ration  when  feeds  are  purchased  than  when  the 
carbohydrates,  or  non -nitrogenous  nutrients,  are 
in  excess.  In  the  case  of  crops  suitable  for  soiling 
purposes,  it  is  often  quite  as  economical,  or  even 
more  economical,  to  feed  a  ration  richer  than  the 
standard  in  its  content  of  digestible  nitrogenous 
nutrients  than  to  attempt  to  widen  the  ration  by 
the  use  of  carbohydrate  feeds.    This  is  due  to  the 


SILAGE   RATIONS  29 

fact  that  many  of  the  crops  that  are  suitable  for 
soiling  belong  to  the  legume  family,  which  are 
relatively  richer  in  nitrogenous  substance  than  the 
cereals;  and,  because  these  legumes  do  not  need 
nitrogenous  manuring,  they  may  be  more  cheaply 
raised  than  others.  It  frequently  happens,  also, 
that  many  of  the  cereal  crops,  when  in  a  fit  con- 
dition for  soiling,  are  more  highly  nitrogenous 
than  when  approaching  maturity;  and  a  larger 
use  of  this  nitrogenous  food  would  probably  be 
quite  as  economical  as  if  smaller  quantities  were 
used  and  carbohydrates  purchased.  Hence,  in 
soiling  systems,  the  observation  of  those  laws 
which  are  frequently  very  potent  in  regulating 
the  cost  of  nutrients  per  unit  of  product  when 
dried  foods  are  exclusively  used,  may  be  in  part 
ignored. 

A  soiling  system  properly  conducted  requires  a 
large  number  of  crops,  varying  widely  in  their 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  non- nitrogenous 
nutrients.  The  land  must  be  kept  occupied;  and  a 
proper  and  self-sustaining  rotation  usually  includes 
leguminous  plants  in  order  to  maintain  or  increase 
the  productiveness  of  the  farm.  If  the  feeder 
thinks  that  with  every  change  of  forage  he  would 
be  required  to  change  his  feed  ration,  he  might  be 
deterred  from  adopting  the  system;  but,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  this  change  would  not 
necessarily  be  required. 


30  FORAGE    CHOPS 

SOILING   VERSUS   PASTURING 

The  chief  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
soiling,  as  compared  with  pasturing,  have  been 
pointed  out  by  many  writers,  and  special  points 
are  alluded  to  in  succeeding  chapters;  but  it  may 
be  well  to  consider  the  question  briefly  at  this 
time,  as  the  subject  is  not  well  understood,  and 
its  importance  is  not  appreciated  as  it  should  be. 

Among  the  advantages  of  the  soiling  system, 
the  following  are  important: 

1.  A  larger  quantity  of  food  may  be  secured  from 
the  same  land  under  soiling  systems  than  under 
pasturage.  It  has  been  shown  by  many  careful 
experiments  that  one  acre  of  land  in  soiling  crops 
will  maintain  from  two  to  four  cows  per  acre  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  or  practically  from  May  1 
to  November  1  in  the  latitude  of  Pennsylvania. 

2.  The  food  may  be  made  more  uniform  in 
quantity  and  in  quality  when  cut  and  carried  to 
the  animals,  and  fed  in  the  barn  or  paddock,  than 
when  the  animals  are  allowed  to  select  their  own. 
Under  exclusive  pasturage  systems  animals  are 
frequently  unable  to  obtain  a  full  supply;  thus 
their  food  fluctuates  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
and  the  varying  conditions  do  not  permit  of  the 
full  and  constant  flow  of  milk.  Animals  cannot  be 
kept  to  their  full  capacity  throughout  the  year 
unless  they  are  uniformly  and  abundantly  supplied 
with  food. 


AD  VANTA  GES  AND  DISA D  VANTA  GES  31 

3.  Practically  all  the  food  can  be  made  avail- 
able for  use,  while  systems  of  pasturing  prevent 
the  entire  use  of  any  crop,  a  large  part  of  it  being 
wasted  by  the  tramping  of  the  animals. 

4.  The  expense  of  fencing  is  saved,  and  the 
land  is  more  completely  utilized.  The  only  fences 
required  on  farms  where  soiling  systems  are  fol- 
lowed are  those  around  the  exercising  grounds. 
A  five -acre  exercising  lot  is  ample  for  fifty  to 
seventy-five  head  of  cattle. 

5.  In  the  production  of  sanitary  milk  (that  is, 
clean  milk,  free  from  taints,  odors  and  flavors), 
the  soiling  system  is  much  superior  to  pasturing, 
as  the  source  of  supply  of  food  and  water  may  be 
controlled.  Under  the  soiling  system,  there  is  no 
necessity  that  milk  at  certain  seasons  taste  grassy 
or  garlicky  or  bitter,  due  to  the  consumption  of 
various  weeds,  which  are  likely  to  be  present  even 
in  the  best  of  pastures.  Furthermore,  the  animals 
do  not  have  access  to  stagnant  pools  of  water, 
which  frequently  contribute  undesirable  character- 
istics to  the  milk. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  soiling  system  are 
chiefly  two: 

1.  The  greater  expenditure  for  labor  and 
expense  in  the  preparation  of  soil,  seeding  and 
fertilizing  in  providing  for  the  crop,  and  in  cutting 
and  carrying  the  food  to  the  animals.  In  pastur- 
ing, the  minimum  of  labor  is  required. 


32  FORAGE   CROPS 

2.  In  wet  spells,  it  is  frequently  difficult  to 
harvest  and  cart  the  food  to  the  animal,  without 
injury  to  the  land,  and  without  reducing  the 
palatability  of  the  forage,  although  this  also 
applies  in  part  to  pasturing. 


COST   OF   NUTRIENTS   IN   SOILING   CROPS 

It  is  difficult  to  establish  definite  relations 
between  the  cost  of  food  in  soiling  and  in  pasture, 
owing  to  the  wide  variety  of  conditions  that  occur. 
In  the  first  place,  in  many  soiling  systems  it  is 
possible  to  utilize  catch- crops  (those  grown  between 
times, or  incidental  to  other  crops)  at  relatively  little 
cost  or  to  very  great  advantage.  In  other  cases, 
in  order  that  the  continuity  of  supply  of  food  may 
not  be  broken  in  complete  soiling  systems,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  expend  relatively  large  amounts 
for  fertilizers,  manures  and  seeds.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  case  of  the  pasturing  in  many  of  the 
rougher  sections  of  the  country,  land  can  be  uti- 
lized that  could  not  be  profitably  tilled,  thus  ena- 
bling the  growing  of  suitable  crops  by  the  one 
system  which  would  not  be  possible  by  the  other. 
If  land  is  expensive,  and  the  markets  for  dairy 
products  are  good,  the  cost  of  nutrients  per  animal 
is  relatively  much  less  with  soiling  than  with  pas- 
turage, largely  because  of  the  decrease  in  the 
capital  necessary  to  provide  the  land. 


SOILING   INCREASES    CAPACITY   OF   FARM         33 

A  farmer  having  a  one -hundred -acre  farm 
could  provide,  under  the  soiling  system,  summer 
and  winter  roughage  for  fifty  to  seventy -five  head 
of  cattle.  Under  the  pasturing  system  he  would 
not  have  a  sufficient  area  to  provide  more  than 
summer  pasture,  as  each  animal  would  require 
about  two  acres;  thus  he  would  not  be  able  to 
provide  any  forage  for  winter  use.  In  other  words, 
the  soiling  system  virtually  increases  the  efficiency 
of  areas  available  for  dairying  from  four  to  six 
times. 

Under  good  systems  of  pasturage,  it  would 
require  at  least  100  acres  to  supply  the  pasture 
necessary  for  fifty  cows,  whereas  by  the  soiling 
system  100  acres  would  be  capable  of  providing 
food  for  300  cows  for  the  same  period.  All  of  the 
large  dairies  producing  sanitary  milk  for  the  best 
city  trade,  and  keeping  from  50  to  500  cows,  prac- 
tice soiling  and  find  it  much  more  economical  than 
pasturing;  in  fact,  it  would  be  practically  impos- 
sible, in  many  instances,  to  conduct  the  business 
if  pasture  were  the  only  source  of  summer  succu- 
lent food. 


EXPERIMENTS    TO   DETERIMINE    THE    COST   OF    NUTRIENTS 

In  experiments  at  the  New  Jersey  Station  on 
the  yield  and  cost  of  nutrients  in  soiling  systems, 
it  was  shown  that,  while  both  yield  and  cost  varied 


34  FORAGE   CROPS 

with  the  season  and  kind  of  crop,  nevertheless 
the  cost  of  dry  matter  in  the  various  crops,  not 
including  the  labor  required  to  bring  the  food  to 
the  barn,  averaged  about  $6.50  per  ton,  while  the 
feeding -value  of  the  dry  matter  was  nearly  as 
great  on  the  average  as  that  in  fine  feeds,  which 
averaged  over  $20  per  ton;  and  furthermore,  that 
the  yield  per  acre  of  dry  matter  ranged  from  three 
to  four  and  one -half  tons. 

In  these  experiments  the  land  was  used,  in  many 
cases,  for  three  crops,  and  in  others  for  two;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  soil  was  constantly  occupied 
with  growing  crops.  It  is  more  than  likely  that 
the  expense  of  growing  these  crops  would  be  much 
greater  in  the  East  and  South  than  in  the  richer 
lands  of  the  Central  West,  because,  in  addition  to 
the  manures,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  apply  com- 
mercial fertilizers  in  order  to  secure  maximum 
crops. 

ROTATION   SYSTEMS 

As  already  indicated,  in  soiling  systems  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  largest  returns  may 
be  obtained  and  that  a  continuous  supply  of  forage 
may  be  provided,  to  adopt  systems  of  rotation 
that  will  result  in  the  largest  yield  of  food  per 
acre.  It  is  impossible  to  give  rotations  that  are 
likely  to  be  most  useful  for  all  conditions,  as  cli- 
mate, season,  and  adaptability  of  crop,  vary  widely 


SOILING   ROTA'IION  35 

in  different  localities ;  but  in  order  to  give  an  idea 
of  how  rotations  work  out,  the  record  of  one  year's 
soiling  crops  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Sta- 
tion is  here  presented: 

A  Rotation  of  Soiling  Crops  Which  Supplied  Fifty  Animals 
Six  Months 

K-   d  Seed  used  Date  of  Period  of  cutting       Yield, 

(bushels)           seeding                and  feeding  tons 

Rye,2acres 4     ....Sept.  27 May  1-7 9.4 

Rye,  2  acres 4     ....Oct.  3 May  7-19 19.2 

Alfalfa,  1  acre,  first  cutting  A  .-..May  14 May  19-25 11.1 

Wheat,  2  acres 4     Sept.  26 May  25-June  1 10.4 

Crimson  clover,  6  acres. ..   I3- July  16 June  1-21 .*  42.8 

Mixed  grasses,  1  acre June  21-26 8.3 

Oats-and-peas,  2  acres. .  <    3      >..April2 June  26-July  4 12.4 

Oats-and-peas,  2  acres. .  -I    ~      J-..  April  11 July  4-9 8.2 

Alfalfa,  second  cutting July  9-11 2.1 

Oats-and-peas,  5  acres. .  -I    „y  J- .  .April  19 July  11-22 16.4 

Southern      white        corn, 

2  acres %....May2 July  22-Aug.  3.. ..  17.7 

Barnyard  millet,  2  acres..   1% June  19 Aug.  3-19 23.2 

Soybeans,  1  acre 2     June  1 Aug.  19-25 8.8 

Cowpeas,  1  acre 2     June  10 Aug.  25-Sept.  1  . . .  10.5 

Cowpeas-and-kafir   corn,  f   2     ~1       T   ,     ,n              0      ,    ,   nr.  n.   . 

2  acres .|    1     \  • -™7  ™ Sept.  1-16 24.4 

Pearl  millet,  2  acres %....  July  11 Sept.  16-Oct.  1 . . . .  20.2 

Cowpeas,  1  acre 1% July  24 Oct.  1-5 8.0 

Mixed    grasses,    5    acres 

(partly  dried) Oct.  5-27 20.0 

Barley,  2  acres 3%. ...Sept.  2 Oct.  27-Nov.  1 ....  5.2 


Total 278.3 

The  above  crops  supplied  sufficient  green  for- 
age for  an  equivalent  of  fifty  full-grown  animals 
from  May  1  to  November  1,  fine  feeds  being  used 
in  addition  as  the  animals  seemed  to  require  them. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  average  quantity  of 
food  consumed   daily   by   each   animal   was   60.4 


36  FORAGE   CROPS 

pounds.  The  number  of  acres  was  twenty -four,  ten 
of  which  were  used  exclusively  for  forage  crops, 
while  the  other  fourteen  were  used  only  part  of 
the  season.  The  records  for  several  years  at  this 
Station  show  that  three  and  one -fourth  cows  may 
be  kept  on  an  acre  for  six  months  of  the  growing 
season. 

Other  combinations  of  crops,  which  may  be 
applicable  in  other  localities,  are  indicated  in  the 
following  table: 

Annual  Yield  of  Rotating  Soiling  Crops  Per  Acre 

' Approxi  m  ate < 

No.  of  Crops  in  Time  of  Time  of  Yield  per 

acre  one-year  rotation  seeding  cutting  acre— tons 

{Rye  and  crimson  clover September May  1-10 8.05 
Oats-and-peas May  10 July  1-10 7.60 
Soybeans July  10 Sept.  1-10 9.00 


Total 24.65 

{Wheat  fodder  September May  10-20 7.00 
Cowpeas May  20 July  10-20 8.20 
Japanese  millet July  20 Sept.  10-20 7.00 

Total 22.20 

f  Oats-and-peas April  1 June  10-20 7.34 

S<  Japanese  millet June  20 Aug.  1-10 8.73 

t  Barley-and-peas Aug.  10 Oct.  10-20 6.03 


Total 22. 10 

{Oats-and-peas April  10 June  1-10 6.80 
Cowpeas June  10 Aug.  10-20 8.20 
Barley-and-peas Aug.  20 Oct.  20-30 6.30 


Total 21.30 

f  Rye September Mav  1-7 9. 60 

5<  Cowpeas June  10 Aug.  25-Sept.  1....  10.50 

I  Barley Sept.  2 Oct.  27-Nov.  1 . . . .    2.60 


Total 22.70 


SOILING   ROTATIONS  37 

Annual  Yield  of  Rotating  Soiling  Crops  per  Acre— Continued 

< Approximate 

No.  of  Crops  in  Time  of  Time  of  Yield  per 

acre  one-year  rotation  seeding  cutting  acre — tons 

f  Rye October May  7-19 9.60 

(j\  Soybeans June  10 Aug.  19-25 8.80 

[Barley Sept.  2 Oct.  27-Nov.  1.  ...    2.60 

Total 21.00 

7  J  Crimson  clover July May  20-June  1 8.00 

'\Corn June  1 July  20-Aug.  1....     9.56 

Total 17.56 

8 /Mixed  grasses September June  20-30 7.00 

8  \  Corn June  20 Aug.  20-Sept.  1...  12.24 

Total 19.24 


Q  fRye-and-vetch Sept.  10 May  10-19 8 

J\Corn May  27 July  20-29 11 


Total 20.40 

in  fRye August May  1-10 8.50 

1U\ Pearl  millet May  18 Aug.  8-15 15.10 


Total 23.60 

,,  fOats-and-peas April  10 June  26-July  4....  10.20 

x 1  \  Cowpeas Aug.  1 Sept.  16-22 8.00 


fOa 
1Z  \  Fli 


Total 18.20 

Oats-and-peas April  21 June  29-July  6 10.20 

rn July  10 Sept.  22-30 11.00 


Total 21.20 


13  f  Oat 


and -peas April  2 June  16-23 6.20 

Cowpeas-and-kaflr  corn July  10 Sept.  1-16 12.20 


Total 18.40 

^ Alfalfa  —  First  year,  two  cuttings 8.00 

,.1  Alfalfa— Second  year,  four  cuttings 20.21 

1  Alfalfa-Third  year,  five  cuttings 26.60 

*■  Alfalfa-Fourth  year,  four  cuttings 21.70 

In   these   schemes,   when    one    crop    is    removed 
another  is   put  in   immediately.    As   the  time  of 


38  FORAGE   CROPS 

seeding,  as  well  as  time  of  harvesting,  varies 
greatly,  the  dates  are  of  course  only  approximate. 

In  order  that  the  land  may  be  covered  in  winter, 
rye  or  wheat  is  seeded  when  the  last  crop  is 
removed.  To  accomplish  this  in  the  case  of  Nos. 
4,  5  and  6,  rye  is  seeded  with  the  barley  or  barley- 
and-peas,  and  it  will  usually  grow  sufficiently, 
after  the  forage  is  removed,  to  make  a  good  cover 
for  the  winter. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  rotations  in  the 
latter  table,  alfalfa  is  not  included,  although  a 
small  area  was  used  in  the  rotation  indicated  in 
the  previous  table.  Where  it  is  possible  to  grow 
alfalfa,  it  would  be  quite  unnecessary  to  use  so 
large  a  number  of  crops.  In  fact,  rye,  crimson 
clover,  alfalfa  and  corn  would  serve  to  provide 
practically  a  continuous  supply  of  food,  as  the 
alfalfa  will  be  ready  for  harvesting  usually  the 
fourth  week  in  May,  and  the  cutting  can  be  so 
arranged  afterward  as  practically  to  provide  a 
continuous  supply  of  forage  until  the  middle  of 
September.  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most 
satisfactory  crops  that  can  be  grown  for  soiling. 

THE    ROTATIONS    MUST    BE    CAREFULLY    PLANNED 

It  will  be  observed  from  a  study  of  the  tables 
of  rotations  that,  in  order  to  provide  for  a  con- 
tinuous supply  of  forage  crops,  careful  plans  must 


POINTS   IN   ROTATIONS  39 

be  made  beforehand,  or  a  period  will  occur  when 
there  is  a  lack  of  sufficient  food.  In  the  central 
states,  the  period  likely  to  be  most  difficult  to  fill 
is  the  latter  part  of  July  and  early  August,  espe- 
cially should  the  season  be  so  dry  as  to  prevent  max- 
imum growth.  To  avoid  interruptions,  it  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  plant  a  larger  area  and  plan  for 
a  greater  quantity  of  food  than  would  be  requisite  if 
normal  conditions  prevailed.  It  is  also  necessary, 
if  the  land  is  to  be  fully  occupied  and  maximum 
yields  secured,  that  care  be  taken  to  follow  the 
schedule  of  seeding  and  harvesting  very  closely. 
A  difference  of  two  or  three  days  in  the  time  of 
seeding,  especially  in  spring,  will  very  often  make 
a  difference  of  ten  days  in  the  time  of  harvesting. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  oats  and 
peas. 

The  period  required  for  growing  the  crop  to  the 
proper  stage,  as  well  as  the  period  during  which 
crops  may  be  useful  for  forage,  will  also  vary  to 
some  extent;  but  if  harvesting  is  begun  early 
enough,  as  pointed  out  in  the  discussion  of  indi- 
vidual crops,  the  period  of  usefulness  will  range 
from  six  days  to  two  weeks.  For  example,  rye 
seeded  at  different  times  will  in  some  seasons  pro- 
vide excellent  forage  for  fully  two  weeks,  while  in 
certain  other  seasons,  especially  if  the  early  season 
is  dry  and  hot,  profitable  feeding  cannot  be  con- 
tinued  for  more   than  a  week  or  ten  days.    The 


40  FORAGE   CROPS 

period  of  successful  feeding  will  also  depend  on 
the  kind  of  crop.  Corn  may  be  fed  for  a  much 
longer  period  than  any  other  of  the  regular  forage 
crops,  while  millet  is  not  useful  ordinarily  for  more 
than  six  days.  All  of  these  factors  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  making  plans  for  a  season,  in 
order  that  the  forage  will  be  in  the  best  condition 
for  soiling,  and  that  the  land  may  be  fully  utilized 
for  crops. 

Many  farmers  using  green  forage  crops  for  the 
first  time  make  the  mistake  of  waiting  until  the 
plant  is  too  far  matured  before  beginning  its  use. 
The  result  is  that  the  food  is  not  palatable,  diges- 
tibility is  reduced,  and  the  milk  flow  is  decreased, 
due  not  to  the  system  of  soiling,  but  to  a  lack  of 
observation  of  the  essential  rules. 


PLANT -FOOD   MUST   BE   PROVIDED 

Another  point  of  considerable  importance,  and 
which  is  often  overlooked,  is  the  fact  that  in  such 
intensive  practice  there  is  a  greater  demand  for 
available  food  than  when  a  period  of  rest  occurs 
between  the  different  crops.  Therefore,  it  is  essen- 
tial not  only  that  very  careful  cultivation  shall  be 
practiced,  but  that  the  land  shall  be  well  supplied 
with  plant -food.  In  any  system  of  rotation,  it  is 
desirable,  also,  that  one  crop  each  year  shall  be  a 
leguminous   crop,   and   also   that  the   land   shall 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  41 

receive  a  dressing  of  manure  once  a  year.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  summer  crops  especially  should  be 
well  supplied  with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Station,  nine  acres  were 
devoted  to  the  growing  of  soiling  crops,  during  a 
period  of  nine  years,  crops  succeeding  each  other 
immediately,  and  the  soil,  instead  of  becoming 
less  fertile,  increased  in  productiveness,  notwith- 
standing the  continuous  drain  on  the  land  and  actual 
removal  of  large  quantities  of  fertility  constituents. 
This  was  undoubtedly  due  to  extra  cultivation,  to 
manure  applied  once  each  year,  to  commercial 
fertilizers  applied  with  the  other  crops,  and  to  the 
further  fact  that  the  land  was  covered  with  some 
crop  in  winter.  This  practice  of  cover -cropping 
not  only  provided  abundance  of  food,  but  prevented 
losses  of  constituents,  as  the  land  was  not  left  bare 
in  fall  and  winter. 


PREPARATION   OF   LAND 

In  the  growing  of  soiling  crops  under  intensive 
systems,  it  is  better,  as  a  rule,  to  plow  but  once  a 
year,  preferably  in  spring.  In  the  preparation  of 
land  for  the  other  crops,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a 
cutaway  harrow,  thoroughly  pulverizing  the  soil 
at  a  depth  of  three  to  four  inches.  The  advantages 
of  this  method  are  that  the  cultivation  conserves 
moisture  should   the  weather  be  dry;    while   the 


42  FORAGE   CROPS 

plowing  causes  too  great  loss  of  it,  since  it  breaks 
the  capillary  connection  with  the  lower  layers  at  a 
too  great  depth  from  the  surface.  A  dried -out 
plowed  surface,  not  having  proper  connection  with 
the  lower  layers,  does  not  contain  sufficient  mois- 
ture to  cause  the  rapid  germination  of  seed  and  to 
provide  what  is  necessary  for  immediate  and  con- 
tinuous growth. 

COVER -CROPS 

To  keep  the  land  constantly  occupied  with 
growing  plants  is  particularly  important,  both  in 
the  hot  summer  months  and  in  fall  and  spring. 
The  covering  of  the  land  in  summer  prevents  the 
temperature  from  rising  so  high  as  to  destroy  the 
organisms  in  the  soil,  while  the  covering  in  fall 
and  spring  prevents  the  mechanical  losses  that 
occur  from  wind  and  rain,  and  by  the  carrying 
away  of  food  in  the  soil- water.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  certain  crops,  as,  for  example,  barley  or  late- 
seeded  oats,  are  harvested  too  late  to  permit  of 
seeding  other  cover- crops,  it  has  been  found  prac- 
ticable to  seed  either  rye  or  wheat  with  the  barley 
or  oats;  and  the  rye,  if  the  nurse  crop  is  removed 
by  the  latter  part  of  October,  will  usually  make 
growth  enough  in  the  central  states  to  prevent 
the  losses  referred  to,  and  to  be  used  in  spring 
for  green  manure  or  for  forage,  as  may  be  most 
convenient. 


ECONOMY    IN  FEEDING  43 


FORAGE -CROP   RATIONS 


In  the  use  of  soiling  crops,  it  is  quite  possible 
to  have  the  green  forage  serve  as  the  entire  ration ; 
although  it  is  better,  on  the  whole,  that  the  soil- 
ing crop  provide  only  the  larger  part  of  it,  for 
the  reason  that  in  many  cases  the  green  crop 
contains  such  a  small  proportion  of  dry  matter  as 
to  make  it  necessary  for  the  animals  to  consume  a 
too  large  bulk,  even  though  it  might  be  no  greater 
than  in  pasturing  in  those  periods  when  pasture 
grasses  are  growing  rapidly  and  are  very  watery. 

Experiments  show  that  it  is  possible  to  use 
green  forage  exclusively,  and,  while  the  yield  of 
product  is  less,  the  cost  per  unit  is  also  less  than 
when  fine  feeds  are  used  in  connection  with  it. 
It  is  largely  a  question  as  to  whether  the  dairyman 
desires  to  keep  his  animals  up  to  the  full  standard 
of  production,  by  supplying  in  reasonable  bulk 
sufficient  amounts  of  digestible  food  in  best  forms, 
or  whether  he  desires  to  secure  his  product  at  the 
lowest  cost  even  though  the  total  production  is 
reduced.  If  it  is  cheaper  for  him  to  supply  the 
animals  entirely  by  means  of  forage  crops,  this  is 
the  practice  for  him  to  follow,— that  is,  cheaper  in 
the  sense  that  if  the  milk  yield  is  less,  the  relative 
cost  is  also  so  much  less  as  to  enable  him  to  secure 
a  larger  profit.  These  are  matters  that  individual 
farmers  must  determine  for  themselves. 


44  FORAGE   CROPS 

SUMMER     SILAGE 

In  considering  the  question  of  feeding  of  cattle 
throughout  the  year  with  succulent  food,  the  sum- 
mer silo  must  be  included.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  in  many  instances,  and  for  many  conditions, 
the  summer  silo  would  meet  all  the  requirements 
of  the  dairy  farmer  for  this  particular  form  of 
food.  The  advantages  of  the  silo  are,  chiefly,  a 
saving  of  labor  in  the  season  when  it  is  specially 
needed  for  other  work,  and  providing  a  uniform 
food  supply  without  regard  to  the  character  of  the 
season. 

Whether  the  use  of  the  summer  silo  will  result 
in  materially  reducing  the  cost  of  the  ration, 
is  a  question  that  will  have  to  be  determined  by 
the  actual  conditions  on  a  particular  farm.  To 
judge  from  the  reports  on  cost  of  silage,  there 
would  undoubtedly  be  a  saving  in  actual  cost  of 
food,  providing  the  silos  were  so  constructed  as  to 
result  in  a  minimum  loss  of  dry  matter.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  in  the  construction  of 
a  silo  for  summer  use  the  surface  areas  of  the 
silo  should  be  less  per  animal  than  for  winter 
silage,  owing  to  the  more  rapid  fermentation 
of  the  silage  in  hot  weather.  At  least  double  the 
depth,  or  about  four  inches,  should  be  removed 
daily,  instead  of  two  inches,  as  in  the  case  of 
winter  silage. 


THE   SUMMER   SILO  45 

The  use  of  a  summer  silo  does  not  prevent  the 
profitable  production  of  other  crops  than  corn. 
Frequently  such  crops  as  rye  and  crimson  clover, 
when  they  are  grown  as  catch- crops,  have  been 
successfully  ensilaged  in  the  spring  for  summer 
use. 

With  the  use  of  the  summer  silo  it  would  be 
quite  possible  to  carry  as  many  animals  as  by  the 
soiling  system,  providing  the  rotations  were  so 
arranged  as  to  permit  of  more  than  one  crop  per 
year  on  the  same  area  (as,  for  example,  rye,  wheat 
and  crimson  clover) ,  and  if  a  large  area  of  alfalfa 
were  grown  for  hay  to  furnish  protein  for  both 
winter  and  summer  rations.  The  economics  of  the 
summer  silo  have  not  yet  been  fully  worked  out, 
but  the  question  is  one  that  has  much  promise  as 
a  means  of  reducing  the  cost  of  food,  and  of 
increasing  tl;e  number  of  animals  that  may  be 
kept  on  a  given  area. 


CHAPTER    IV 

STRAW    CEREALS   AND    GREEN-FORAGE    GRASSES 

All  cereal  or  grain  crops  produce  herbage  that 
is  acceptable  and  nutritious  to  animals.  It  is  often 
allowable  to  grow  such  crops  solely  for  the  herbage, 
or  forage,  rather  than  for  the  grain.  Such  crops 
usually  adapt  themselves  well  to  farming  plans; 
or,  rather,  farming  plans  are  likely  to  have  been 
so  formed  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  these  common 
crops.  In  their  ordinary  relations,  these  crops  are 
well  known,  and  only  a  brief  discussion  is  neces- 
sary to  explain  their  forage  crop  cultivation. 

Many  of  the  regular  hay  crops  can  also  be  uti- 
lized to  advantage  for  soiling  and  for  other  green 
foraging.  The  utilization  of  such  crops  for  special 
purposes,  when  conditions  are  right,  increases  the 
productiveness  of  animals  and  also  allows,  in  some 
cases,  of  a  better  system  of  handling  the  land. 
Two  of  the  commonest  of  such  grass  crops  are  dis- 
cussed in  this  chapter. 

RYE  AS  A  FORAGE  CROP   (Fig.  3) 

Although  not  generally  regarded  favorably,  rye 
is  a  valuable  soiling  crop,  primarily  because    in 

(46) 


BYE 


47 


many  states  it  is  available  for  feeding  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  any  other  crop  suitable  for  the 
purpose.  In  the  central  states  and  the  middle 
west,  it  is  ready  for  use  about  the  first  of  May,  or 
at  a  time  when  pastures  are  too  young  to  use  and 
when  some  green  crop  is  especially  desirable.    A 


Fig  3.     Rye,  at  best  stage  of  maturity  for  soiling. 


48  FORAGE    CROPS 

suitable  variety  of  rye  is  one  that  makes  a  large 
growth  of  leaf,  although  any  variety  may  be 
improved  in  this  respect  by  proper  seed  selecting 
and  manuring.  The  common  winter  rye  is  gener- 
ally used,  although  Excelsior,  Thousandfold  and 
Giant  are  all  desirable,  since,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  large  yield  of  grain,  there  is  a  heavy  leaf 
development. 

In  the  southern  states,  and  as  far  north  as 
southern  New  Jersey,  spring  rye  is  frequently  used 
as  a  forage  crop,  as  well  as  for  grain.  This  plant 
has  not  succeeded  well  as  far  north  as  central  New 
Jersey,  although  fair  crops  have  been  obtained 
when  the  plant  has  been  used  as  a  grain  crop.  It 
does  not  possess  any  peculiar  advantages,  and  is 
not  recommended  in  preference  to  other  spring- 
seeded  crops,  on  which  greater  dependence  can 
usually  be  placed. 

When  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  soiling 
(to  which  it  is  best  adapted),  rye  makes  an  excel- 
lent pasture;  and  while  but  one-third  to  one-half 
as  much  food  is  obtained  as  from  soiling,  it  can  be 
used  through  a  longer  period,  provided  it  is  not 
pastured  too  closely  in  its  early  growth.  Pasturing 
is  a  favorite  method  of  utilizing  rye  in  many  dairy 
districts,  and  the  crop  serves  a  most  excellent  pur- 
pose as  a  source  of  food  as  well  as  to  protect  the 
regular  pastures  from  injury  from  too  early  use. 
If  weather  conditions  are  favorable  later,  a  light 


BYB 


49 


early  pasturing  will  not  seriously  interfere  with  the 
maturing  of  the  grain. 

Another  advantage  of  rye,  which  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of,  is  its  usefulness  as  a  cover-crop, 
not  only  in  absorbing  and  holding  plant-food,  but 
in  preventing  the  waste   of    soil    by  washing  or 

blowing. 

Eye  can  be  seeded  later  in  the  fall  than  almost 
any  other  crop,  and  starts  earlier  in  spring  than 
most  others.  It  will  usually  pay  well  to  seed  rye 
on  raw  ground  as  a  cover -crop  alone. 

Rye  can  also  be  utilized  for  silage.  It  is  not  so 
well  adapted  for  silage  as  corn,  yet  if  allowed  to 
head  out  fully  before  cutting  and  to  wilt  slightly 
before  packing  in  the  silo,  it  may  be  preserved 
without  serious  loss.  Its  food  value  in  silage  will 
also   compare   favorably  with   that  in  the  green 

material . 

Made  in  the  proper  way,  rye  hay  is  also  a  good 
means  of  utilizing  the  crop.  It  should  be  cut  when 
at  its  best  stage  for  forage,  that  is,  before  fully 
headed  out,  and  cured  in  the  usual  way. 

Soils j  manures,  and  fertilizers  for  rye 

When  grown  for  forage  purposes,  the  prepara- 
tion of  soil  and  the  seeding  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, as  these  points  have  a  direct  bearing  both 
on  the  earliness  and  the  yield,  notwithstanding  that 


50  FORAGE    CROPS 

rye  is  a  crop  that  makes  a  good  growth  in  relatively 
poor  soils.  The  land  should  be  prepared  in  the 
same  way  as  when  the  crop  is  grown  for  grain. 
Particular  care  should  be  exercised  to  make  the 
surface  soil  very  fine,  in  order  that  the  feeding 
rootlets  may  readily  occupy  the  entire  area. 

Manures  should  be  used  liberally  for  rye.  If 
available,  from  six  to  eight  loads  of  good  barn- 
yard manure  should  be  broadcasted  after  plowing, 
and  thoroughly  harrowed  into  the  soil.  If  com- 
mercial fertilizer  is  used,  a  mixture  rich  in  phos- 
phoric acid  is  especially  recommended.  A  formula 
carrying 

Nitrogen 3  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 8  per  cent 

Potash      4  per  cent 

is  one  in  which  the  constituents  are  well  propor- 
tioned; and  its  liberal  use  will  very  materially 
influence  the  character  of  the  growth,  not  only  in 
the  fall,  but  in  the  following  spring.  The  fact  that 
fall -grown  crops  will  store  food  in  the  tissue  ready 
for  elaboration  in  the  spring  makes  it  desirable 
that  such  crops  as  are  intended  for  early  forage 
shall  make  a  vigorous  growth  in  fall,  in  order  that 
this  appropriation  of  food  may  be  accomplished  to 
the  best  advantage,  and  that  the  spring  growth 
may  be  early  and  rapid.  Fertilizer  should  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  200  to  400  pounds  per  acre, 
depending  on  the  character  of   the  soil.    It  may 


BYE  51 

be  broadcasted  before  seeding  or  drilled  with  the 
seed. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  yield,  the  early 
growth  should  be  stimulated,  particularly  with 
nitrogenous  food  ;  therefore  an  application  of  100 
to  150  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  aere,  broad- 
casted, usually  about  the  first  of  April,  is  to  be 
recommended.  Experiments  at  the  New  Jersey 
Station  show  that  an  application  of  150  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  has  caused  an  average 
increase  in  yield  of  37.6  per  cent,  besides  giving 
the  further  advantage  of  lengthening  the  time  dur- 
ing which  the  crop  may  be  fed.  This  increase  in 
yield  is  a  very  important  consideration,  because 
one  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  soiling, 
as  distinguished  from  pasturing,  is  that  smaller 
areas  are  required  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  ani- 
mals; and  there  is  thus  great  reason  for  proper 
manuring  or  fertilizing,  since  the  larger  yields 
result  in  decreasing  the  area  required  for  produc- 
ing the  food  for  a  definite  number  of  animals.  If 
possible,  this  application  of  nitrate  should  be 
made  just  preceding  or  after  a  rain,  in  order  that 
the  salt  may  be  immediately  dissolved  and  carried 
to  the  roots.  In  order  to  prevent  injury,  it  should 
be  applied  only  when  the  foliage  is  dry.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  get  as  much  of  the  nitrogen  into  the 
plant  as  possible;  thus  it  should  be  applied  as 
soon  as  active  growth  begins,  or  when  the  plant 


52  FORAGE   CHOPS 

has  resumed  its  vegetative  functions.  If  applied 
earlier  than  this,  the  rate  of  absorption  will  be 
slower,  and  the  danger  of  loss  from  leaching  will 
be  greater.  The  application  may  be  made  broadcast 
by  hand,  or  with  a  good  fertilizer  distributer.  As 
the  nitrate  is  a  heavy  salt,  and  it  is  difficult  evenly 
to  distribute  the  small  quantities  usually  recom- 
mended, it  should  preferably  be  mixed  with  some 
other  substance,  as  plaster,  bran,  sawdust,  or  dry 
earth. 

Seeding  and  harvesting 

The  quantity  of  seed  will  vary  according  to  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Ordinarily,  when  rye  is 
seeded  for  forage,  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be 
thick,  even  though  under  good  appropriation  of 
food  the  plants  will  stool  largely.  If  the  seeding 
is  thick,  the  great  number  of  shoots  will  thicken 
the  forage  and  make  it  useful  for  a  soiling  crop 
for  a  longer  period,  because  the  finer  the  stem  the 
longer  will  the  plant  remain  palatable. 

When  grown  primarily  for  forage,  the  quantity 
of  seed  should  be  greater  than  when  the  crop  is 
grown  for  grain, — usually  two  bushels  per  acre. 

The  yield  per  acre,  even  under  good  methods  of 
management,  will  vary  widely,  according  to  char- 
acter of  soil  and  season.  The  range  is  from  four 
to  twelve  tons  per  acre.  In  experiments  at  the 
New  Jersey  Station,  the  average  yield  for  seven 


BYE  53 

years  has  been  seven  tons  per  acre.  The  cost  of 
seeding  and  fertilizing  has  been  five  dollars  and 
fifty  cents,  making  the  crop  one  of  the  cheapest 
of  those  used  for  soiling. 

In  order  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained 
from  the  use  of  rye  as  a  green  forage  crop,  har- 
vesting should  begin  as  soon  as  the  plant  begins 
to  head.  At  this  period,  the  forage  is  very  succu- 
lent, palatable  and  highly  digestible.  In  the  first 
feedings,  smaller  amounts  should  be  used  than  are 
sufficient  to  supply  the  entire  needs  of  the  animal. 
If  the  plant  is  left  until  it  is  fully  headed  out 
before  beginning  to  cut, — at  which  period  perhaps 
the  largest  total  amount  of  food  would  be  obtained, 
— the  time  during  which  the  crop  may  be  used  is 
very  much  shortened,  and  the  usefulness  of  the 
crop,  either  as  a  source  of  all  of  the  succulent  food 
or  as  a  supplement  of  pastures,  is  considerably 
reduced.  Under  average  conditions,  when  the 
practice  outlined  here  is  followed,  rye  may  serve 
to  supply  the  herd  with  a  palatable  food  for  ten  to 
twenty  days,  the  period  depending  on  the  method 
of  seeding  and  the  character  of  the  season. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  long  period  of  feeding, 
the  crop  should  be  seeded  at  different  times.  The 
first  seeding  should  be  made  in  the  middle  states 
in  August,  and  the  second  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
September,  or  first  of  October.  This  later  seeding 
will  make  a  much  less  vigorous  growth  in  fall,  will 


54  FORAGE   CROPS 

start  later  in  spring  and  will  therefore  be  ready 
for  feeding  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than  that  from 
the  first  seeding,  and  which  has  been  stimulated 
as  outlined. 

Chemical  composition  of  the  rye  crop 

If  the  rye  crop  is  used  when  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  forage,  it  contains  a  high  content  of  water, 
or  an  average  of  only  about  18  per  cent  of  dry 
matter.  In  this  stage  of  growth,  the  content  of 
nitrogenous  matter  is  relatively  large,  although  it 
is  not  entirely  organized  into  albuminoids.  As  the 
crop  matures,  the  dry  matter  increases  and  the 
crude  fiber  and  nitrogen -free  extract  increase  rela- 
tively much  more  rapidly  than  the  nitrogenous 
compounds,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  is  widened. 
The  average  composition  of  green  rye  and  yield  of 
nutrients  are  as  follows: 

One  ton  An  a^.™ee 

-^ains  gag- 

Per  cent                   Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 81.95               ...  ... 

Dry  matter 18.05                361.0  2527.0 

Ether  extract 0.65                  13.0  91.0 

Crude  fiber 4.29                  85.8  600.6 

Protein 2.13                  42.6  298.2 

Ash 1.36                  37.2  259.4 

Nitrogen -free  extract    ....        9.61                192.2  1345.4 

A  yield  of  seven  tons,  therefore,  will  furnish 
about  one  and  one -fourths  tons  of  dry  matter, 
which  will  contain  about  300  pounds  of  protein, 


BYE  55 

and  nearly  one  ton  of  carbohydrates,  including 
fiber;  the  total  protein  is  practically  equivalent  to 
that  contained  in  one  ton  of  wheat  bran,  and  the 
carbohydrates  are  equivalent  to  that  contained  in 
nearly  two  tons,  but  with  a  rate  of  digestibility 
much  higher  than  for  the  bran.  The  relatively 
large  yield  of  nutrients,  together  with  the  fact  that 
the  crop  may  be  secured  without  large  expense, 
and  without  interfering  with  the  growing  of  other 
crops  the  same  season,  make  rye  a  crop  worthy  of 
consideration.  It  is  now  chiefly  grown  in  the 
northeastern  states,  but  its  area  might  be  profit- 
ably extended. 

Feeding  rye 

It  is  desirable  in  the  beginning,  and  when  the 
plant  is  in  an  immature  state,  to  feed  about  one- 
half  the  quantity  that  the  animals  usually  require, 
say  thirty  pounds  per  day,  and  by  the  third  day 
increase  it  to  fifty  or  sixty  pounds  for  a  1,000- 
pound  cow.  Sixty  pounds  will  supply  about  ten 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  or  nearly  one -half  of  the 
total  required  in  a  daily  ration  for  a  cow  in  full 
flow  of  milk.  Larger  amounts  are  often  fed,  but 
usually  not  to  good  advantage.  Dairy  animals  are 
very  fond  of  green  rye,  when  cut  at  the  proper 
time,  and  its  feeding  will  always  result  in  an 
increase  -in  the  flow  of  milk,  due  both  to  its  suc- 
culence and  to  the  fact  that  at  the  right  stage  of 


56  FORAGE   CROPS 

growth  for  soiling  it  is  very  well  balanced  in  its 
proportions  of  nutrients. 


WHEAT    AS    A    FORAGE    CROP 

Wheat  can  be  successfully  used  for  forage  pur- 
poses. It  will  be  ready  for  use  usually  as  soon  as 
the  rye  has  reached  the  unpalatable  stage.  Wheat 
is  not  so  economical  as  rye  in  many  respects ;  the 
seed  is  more  expensive,  it  is  less  hardy  and  thus 
liable  to  suffer  greater  injury  from  unfavorable 
weather  conditions,  and  does  not  start  so  rapidly 
in  spring.  It  also  requires  a  richer  soil  for  its  best 
growth.  As  in  the  case  of  rye,  when  it  is  designed 
as  a  forage  crop,  either  for  soiling  or  for  pasture, 
the  crop  should  be  seeded  a  little  earlier  than  the 
usual  time  of  seeding  for  grain,  that  is,  not  later 
than  September  1  in  the  middle  states. 

Any  variety  that  is  well  adapted  for  grain  to 
the  soil  and  climate  of  the  given  locality  will  be 
suitable  for  forage,  although  the  kinds  that  make 
large  straw, — and  preferably  beardless  varieties, 
— are  to  be  recommended. 

Wheat  also  makes  excellent  pasture,  and  if 
managed  carefully  a  large  quantity  of  food  may  be 
obtained.  Care  should  be  used  to  prevent  too 
close  early  cropping. 

Wheat  also  makes  a  highly  nutritious  and 
palatable  hay  if  cut  when  just  in  full  head,  and 


WHEAT  57 

carefully  cured.    In  this  way  it  is  used  with  great 
satisfaction  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

Preparation  of  soil,  and  seeding 

The  land  should  be  as  thoroughly  well  prepared 
as  in  seeding  for  the  grain  crop.  Land  should  be 
well  cultivated,  thoroughly  firmed  and  the  surface 
two  or  three  inches  made  very  fine,  so  as  to 
provide  conditions  favorable  for  quick  germination 
and  the  easy  penetration  of  the  fine  rootlets. 

When  yard  or  stable  manure  is  available,  it  is 
good  practice  to  apply  it  broadcast  on  the  surface 
at  the  rate  of  six  to  eight  tons  per  acre,  and  thor- 
oughly incorporate  it  with  the  surface  soil.  This 
may  be  reinforced  by  the  application  of  100  to  150 
pounds  per  acre  of  dissolved  bone;  or,  when  the 
land  is  reasonably  well  supplied  with  nitrogen,  the 
same  quantity  of  acid  phosphate  may  be  used  per 
acre.  It  is  essential  that  an  abundance  of  available 
phosphoric  acid  should  be  at  the  disposal  of  the 
plant  in  the  early  stages  of  growth .  In  the  absence 
of  home  manures,  an  application  of  a  fertilizer 
reasonably  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
should  be  applied,  as  the  principles  indicated  for 
rye  hold  true  also  in  the  case  of  wheat:  that  is,  the 
plant,  having  an  abundance  of  available  food  in  the 
fall,  will  absorb  it,  and  that  which  is  not  converted 
into  plant  substance  will  be  retained,  in  part  at 


58  FORAGE   CROPS 

least,  in  the  tissues  and  be  ready  for  elaboration  in 
early  spring.  A  suitable  application  may  be  made 
of  300  pounds  per  acre  of  a  fertilizer  containing 

Nitrogen 3  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 8  per  cent 

Potash 5  per  cent 

If  wheat  is  sown  primarily  for  forage  the  quantity 
of  seed  should  be  larger  than  when  grain  is  the 
purpose,  or  at  the  rate  of  two  to  two  and  one -half 
bushels  per  acre.  This  is  heavy  seeding,  but  there 
should  be  no  bare  spots,  and  the  plants  should  be 
so  thick  as  to  make  the  proportion  of  leaf  large 
and  the  stems  very  small,  and  permit  of  a  longer 
use  as  forage. 

Value  and  yield  of  wheat 

The  wheat  crop  is  at  its  best  when  just  in  full 
head,  although  its  use  should  begin  just  as  it  is 
heading  out.  Wheat  is  superior  to  rye,  as  it  can 
be  fed  for  a  longer  period,  and  is  usually  more 
palatable.  Wheat  is  also  superior  to  rye  because  it 
contains  more  dry  matter  when  in  a  condition  suit- 
able for  soiling;  therefore,  a  smaller  amount  will 
supply  a  larger  quantity  of  actual  nutrients.  When 
just  heading  out,  analysis  shows  it  to  contain  on 
the  average  23  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  and  in  pro- 
portions of  constituents  such  as  to  make  the 
product  a  fairly  well-balanced  ration.  In  its  more 
nearly  matured  state  it  contains  a  larger  proportion 


WHEAT  59 

of  digestible  nitrogen -free  substance  than  the  rye. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  wheat  contains  more  dry 
matter  than  rye,  when  at  the  best  stage  of  growth, 
it  can  be  fed  immediately  in  the  usual  quantities 
without  injury.  From  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  per 
day  is  the  quantity  most  generally  used. 

The  average  yields  per  acre  are  slightly  greater 
than  for  rye,  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
cut  at  a  later  stage  of  maturity.  Yields  are  much 
increased  by  a  judicious  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  as  recommended  for  rye,  the  increase  being 
usually  greater  than  in  the  case  of  rye,  because  of 
the  longer  period  in  which  the  plants  have  access 
to  the  food  previous  to  cutting, — rye  having  about 
a  month  for  the  absorption  of  the  nitrate,  whereas 
the  wheat  has  from  six  to  seven  weeks.  The 
average  increase  in  yield  from  the  application  of 
150  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre,  at  the  New 
Jersey  Station,  was  over  60  per  cent. 

Wheat  is  slightly  less  useful  as  a  cover- crop 
than  rye,  because  it  usually  does  not  make  so 
vigorous  growth  in  the  fall,  and  starts  off  much 
less  rapidly  in  the  spring.  Still,  it  has  its  use 
for  this  purpose,  and  one  which  should  not  be 
ignored.  Wheat  and  rye,  because  of  their  early 
maturity,  are  especially  suitable  for  supplement- 
ing early  -spring  pastures.  In  fact,  they  are  the 
only  crops,  except  in  the  South,  that  possess  this 
most  valuable  characteristic. 


60  FORAGE    CROPS 

Average  Composition  op  Fodder  Wheat  and  Yield  op 

NuTK.ENTS  A 

— —     ssri1 

Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 77.30  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 22.70  454.0  3632.0 

Ether  extract 0.70  14.0                   112.0 

Crude  fiber 5.90  118.0                   944.0 

Protein 2.40  48.0                   384.0 

Ash 1.80  36.0                  288.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract    ....  11.90  238.0  1904.0 

Wheat  well  grown  and  cut  at  the  right  time, 
will  yield  more  than  rye,  as  high  as  twelve  tons 
having  been  secured  at  the  New  Jersey  Station. 
At  an  average  of  eight  tons  per  acre,  the  nutrients 
will  compare  favorably  with  many  of  the  more 
common  forage  crops  on  this  basis  of  yield.  The 
protein  considerably  exceeds  that  in  an  average 
crop  of  rye. 

OATS   AS   A   FORAGE    CROP 

Oats  are  also  used  as  a  soiling  and  as  a  hay 
crop,  and  are  very  well  adapted  for  these  pur- 
poses. The  best  soils  are  rich  loams,  containing 
an  abundance  of  organic  matter.  Because  of  the 
season  in  which  the  plant  grows,  fertilizers  should 
contain  an  abundance  of  nitrogen  in  an  available 
form.  When  oats  are  used  for  forage  purposes, 
the  nitrogen  may  be  used  in  greater  excess  than 
when  they  are  grown  for  grain,  as  the  stimulation 
of  the  plant  will  not  result  in  injuring  the  quality 


OATS  61 

of  the  crop.  The  forcing  of  leaf  and  stem  prevents 
normal  ripening  and  encourages  those  conditions 
which  are  favorable  for  the  attack  of  fungous  dis- 
eases. The  fertilizer  should  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  a  nitrate. 
A  good  dressing  should  consist  of  at  least 

Nitrogen 12  pounds 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 20  pounds 

Potash 10  pounds 

Or,  an  application  of  300  pounds  of  a  mixture 
containing 

Nitrogen  derived  from  nitrate 4.0  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 7.0  percent 

Potash 3.5  per  cent 

It  is  well  known  that  after  the  food  in  the  seed 
is  used  by  the  plant,  the  crop  does  not  grow  rap- 
idly. This  is  thought  to  be  due  in  part  at  least  to 
the  absence  at  this  season  of  available  plant- food 
of  the  right  kind,  since  liberal  applications  of 
nitrates  and  superphosphates  seem  to  produce  a 
continuous  and  rapid  growth.  That  this  suspen- 
sion of  the  vegetative  activities  should  be  over- 
come in  the  case  of  forage  crops  is  important,  as 
it  hastens  the  development  and  makes  it  possible 
to  secure  the  crop  at  an  early  period. 

When  seeded  primarily  for  forage,  the  quantity 
of  seed  should  be  greater  than  when  sown  together 
with    peas.     From   two    and    one -half    to   three 


62  FORAGE   CROPS 

bushels  per  acre  are  recommended.  The  thicker 
seeding  causes  a  finer  growth  of  stem  and  a  greater 
proportionate  growth  of  leaf,  besides  making  the 
crop  available  for  soiling  purposes  for  a  longer 
period. 

Time  of  harvesting  oats 

The  time  of  harvesting  should  be  regulated  by 
the  development  of  the  plant,  which  is  at  its  best 
for  forage  when  the  oat  grain  is  in  the  milk  stage. 
At  this  period,  the  lower  leaves  are  still  green,  and 
the  succulence  is  maintained.  At  this  time,  also, 
the  plant  is  richer  in  protein  than  either  wheat  or 
rye,  and  apparently  the  protein  is  much  more 
digestible  than  in  those  crops.  Cool,  moist  sea- 
sons are  most  favorable.  Light,  warm  soils,  which 
heat  up  readily,  are  uncongenial. 

Yields  and  value 

The  yields  vary  widely,  as  the  plant  is  very 
materially  affected  by  seasonal  conditions.  The 
range  is  from  four  to  ten  tons  per  acre.  The 
average  content  of  dry  matter  is  about  25  per  cent. 

The  oat  crop  is  also  very  useful  for  pasturage, 
and  also  for  hay  when  cut  at  its  best  period  of 
maturity  for  forage.  The  entire  plant  is  much 
richer  in  digestible  constituents  than  is  timothy 
hay,  and  is  peculiarly  valuable  in  rations  for  dairy 


OATS  63 

cows.  Therefore,  if  not  needed  for  supplementing 
pastures,  it  serves  an  excellent  purpose  as  hay  for 
winter  feeding. 

Composition  op  Oat  Forage  and  Oat  Hay 

GREEN   FORAGE  0ne  ton  An  ave™ee 

contains  £%£ 

Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 75.00  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 25.00  500.0  3500.0 

Ether  extract 0.92  18.4  128.0 

Crude  fiber 7.40  148.0  1036.0 

Protein 2.25  45.0  315.0 

Ash 1.65  33.0  231.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract     ....      12.77  255.4  1787.8 

HAY 

Water 25.00  .   .    . 

Dry  matter 75.00  1500.0 

Ether  extract 2.76  55.2 

Crude    fiber 22.20  444.0 

Protein 6.75  135.0 

Asa 4.95  99.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract     ....  38.31  766.2 

Winter  oats 

In  the  southern  states,  and  as  far  north  as 
southern  New  Jersey,  winter  oats  serve  an  excel- 
lent purpose  as  early  summer  forage.  The  advan- 
tages are  chiefly  that  it  serves  as  a  cover -crop  in 
the  fall  and  winter,  and  saves  time  of  seeding  in 
spring.  It  should  be  seeded  not  later  than  the 
middle  of  September  at  the  rate  of  two  to  two  and 


64  FORAGE   CHOPS 

one -half  bushels  per  acre.  It  thrives  on  soils  well 
fertilized,  as  for  wheat  or  rye.  In  spring  it  should 
receive  a  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  of  100  to 
150  pounds  per  acre. 

The  winter  oats  will  be  ready  for  harvesting  a 
little  earlier  than  spring  oats.  They  should  be 
harvested  as  other  grains,  in  the  milk  stage,  or 
just  before  hardening.  The  yield  is  usually  not  so 
large  as  for  the  spring  oats,  although  when  well 
suited  to  the  soil  and  well  fertilized,  from  six  to 
eight  tons  per  acre  may  be  secured.  This  crop 
also  makes  an  excellent  hay  if  cut  when  at  its 
best  stage  for  soiling.  It  will  serve  a  good  pur- 
pose for  late  fall  and  early  spring  pasture.  When 
used  for  this  purpose,  the  land  would  be  ready  to 
plant  to  corn  the  latter  part  of  May. 

BARLEY 

In  the  more  northern  of  the  eastern  and  central 
western  states,  barley  is  a  most  excellent  forage 
crop.  It  is  better  suited  for  fall  forage  than  for 
spring  forage.  It  is  similar  to  oats  in  its  soil  and 
manurial  requirements.  A  rich,  deep  soil,  contain- 
ing an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter,  is  particu- 
larly well  adapted  to  the  crop.  Its  requirements 
in  the  way  of  nitrogenous  manures  are  similar  to 
those  for  oats;  therefore,  the  recommendations  for 
oats  would  apply  equally  well  to  barley. 


BARLEV,ORCHABD-GKASS  65 

Barley  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  late  fall 
forage,  as  it  is  not  injured  by  light  frosts,  as  are 
oats.  It  may  be  seeded  the  middle  of  August,  at 
the  rate  of  two  to  two  and  one -half  bushels  per 
acre,  depending  on  the  character  of  soil,  and  will 
make  a  succulent  forage  after  frost  has  killed  the 
ordinary  summer  plants. 

Its  composition  is  similar  to  that  of  oats.  If  it 
has  reached  the  heading  stage,  it  will  contain  a 
high  content  of  dry  matter.  It  is  richer  than  oats 
in  protein.  It  is  highly  relished  by  all  farm 
animals.  Because  of  its  season  of  growth,  it  is  a 
very  useful  plant  in  the  saving  of  regular  winter 
forage  materials.  The  yields  run  from  five  to  seven 
tons  per  acre. 

Barley  also  makes  excellent  late  fall  pasture. 
Of  course  the  quantity  of  food  secured  by  pastur- 
ing is  much  less  than  if  the  crop  is  harvested  and 
taken  directly  to  the  barn  or  paddock  for  feeding. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  matures  late,  it  is  not 
generally  useful  for  hay. 

ORCHARD -GRASS 

Orchard  -  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata)  is  among 
the  earliest  grasses  that  are  useful  for  soiling  or 
for  pasture.  It  possesses  many  valuable  charac- 
teristics, and  is  worthy  of  more  careful  attention 
than  is  usually  accorded  it.    Its  chief  advantage 


66  FORAGE   CROPS 

lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  ready  for  use  two  or  three 
weeks  earlier  than  the  grasses  ordinarily  grown; 
it  is  a  plant,  also,  that  makes  a  very  heavy  growth 
under  good  conditions  of  soil  and  season.  It  is 
not  so  suitable  for  sowing  with  grain  as  timothy 
and  red  top,  and  therefore  the  soil  should  be  pre- 
pared with  the  idea  of  securing  the  largest  stand 
of  it  growing  alone. 

Preparation  of  soil  and  seeding 

As  with  other  grasses,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
preparing  of  land  for  orchard  -  grass  should  be 
carefully  performed,  and  particularly  that  the  sur- 
face should  be  well  pulverized  and  a  fine  tilth 
secured. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  will  depend  some- 
what on  the  character  of  soil.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  grow  this  grass  for  forage  except  on  good  soils, 
and  then  two  bushels,  or  about  twenty -eight 
pounds  of  seed,  should  be  used  per  acre.  Thick 
seeding  is  more  likely  to  ensure  a  growth  of  fine 
small  stems  and  leaves,  which  are  very  essential  in 
the  best  use  of  all  forage  crops.  If  not  sown  thick 
enough,  or  if  it  is  uneven,  its  natural  tendency  to 
grow  in  bunches  or  tussocks  is  encouraged,  making 
a  coarse,  rank  stem  and  leaf,  which  are  less  pala- 
table and  digestible.  For  forage  purposes,  seeding 
should  preferably  be  made  in  late  summer  or  fall. 


ORCHARD-GRASS  67 

For  the  eastern,  middle  or  western  states,  from 
the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  September 
is  the  proper  time. 

Manures  and  fertilizers  for  orchard-grass 

Like  other  grasses,  orchard  -  grass  requires 
abundance  of  nitrogenous  food,  and  therefore  the 
promise  of  a  crop  is  very  much  increased  by  the 
application  of  manures  or  fertilizers  containing 
nitrogen  at  the  time  of  seeding,  and  by  top -dress- 
ings with  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  spring.  The  recom- 
mendations usually  made  for  seeding  down  with 
grass  in  general,  can  be  followed  here  with  suc- 
cess,—  to  use  eight  to  ten  tons  of  yard  manure 
per  acre  when  it  is  available,  thoroughly  incorpor- 
ating it  with  the  soil  previous  to  seeding.  If  such 
manures  are  not  available,  then  an  application  is 
recommended  of  300  to  500  pounds  of  a  fertilizer 
containing 

Nitrogen 4  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 8  per  cent 

Potash 8  per  cent 

The  fertilizer  should  be  applied  previous  to  seeding, 
and  well  harrowed  in.  On  most  soils,  it  will  also 
pay  well  to  follow  this  in  spring  with  a  top-dress- 
ing of  nitrate  of  soda,  at  the  rate  of  100  to  150 
pounds  per  acre,  applied  as  soon  as  the  plants 
have  begun  their  vegetative  functions,  usually  dur- 


68  FORAGE    CROPS 

ing   the  first   half  of  April   in   Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio. 

Harvest  and  yields  of  orchard- grass 

Under  favorable  conditions,  plants  of  orchard- 
grass  reach  a  height  of  three  to  four  feet.  The 
leaves  are  abundant  and  coarse,  although  they 
make  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious  food  if  cut 
at  the  right  time,  which  is  just  as  the  crop  is  be- 
ginning to  head.  The  plant  hardens  very  rapidly 
after  coining  into  head.  It  can  be  used  for  eight 
to  ten  days  only,  providing  cutting  begins  early 
enough.  In  average  seasons,  in  the  middle  states, 
first  cuttings  can  be  made  the  last  week*  in  May. 
Under  good  conditions  of  soil  and  season,  the 
yield  for  the  first  cut  will  range  from  five  to  eight 
tons  of  green  forage  per  acre. 

Orchard-grass  in  bloom, —  which  is  the  latest 
period  in  its  development  when  it  can  be  used  suc- 
cessfully for  green  forage, —  contains  about  27  per 
cent  of  dry  matter.  It  is  less  nitrogenous  than 
either  rye  or  wheat;  therefore,  feed  rations  should 
be  richer  in  protein  than  in  the  case  of  those  two 
crops. 

When  cut  at  the  usual  time,  if  immediately  top- 
dressed,  either  with  yard  manure  or  a  fertilizer,  a 
second  cutting  may  be  secured  the  same  season. 
The  yield  of  this  crop  usually  will  not  be  so  large 
as  the  first  cutting,  although  the  treatment  of  the 


ORCIlAliDGllASS  69 

crop  and  the  character  of  the  season  will  mate- 
rially influence  this  point.  If  the  season  is  good, 
the  second  cutting  may  be  made  in  August,  and 
a  yield  of  four  to  six  tons  secured,  and  it  will 
be  quite  as  rich  in  dry  matter  as  the  first  cutting; 
usually  it  will  be  richer  in  protein,  as  in  the  second 
crop  the  tendency  to  form  stems  is  lessened. 

Pasture  and  hay 

When  not  desired  as  a  green  forage  crop, 
orchard -grass  may  be  pastured  successfully,  and  if 
it  is  rather  closely  eaten,  it  is  an  excellent  crop  for 
the  purpose.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  make  too 
large  growth  before  the  animals  are  turned  on,  as 
it  soon  hardens  and  becomes  unpalatable,  particu- 
larly if  the  weather  is  dry.  If  cut  just  at  the  period 
of  blooming,  or  even  a  little  earlier,  it  makes  good 
hay,  and  the  largest  quantity  of  palatable  and 
digestible  food  per  acre  may  be  expected. 


Composition  of  Orchard-Grass 


.-.        .  An  average 

One  ton  acre-yield 


contains 


furnishes 


Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 73.0  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 27.0  540  5,400 

Ether  extract 0.0  18  180 

Crude  fiber 8.2  164  1,640 

Protein 2.6  52  520 

Ash 2  0  40  400 

Nitrogen-free  extract     ....  13.3  266  2,660 


70  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

An  average  yield  of  ten  tons  for  the  two  cuttings 
will  give  for  the  season  5,400  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter, of  which  510  pounds  will  be  protein,  while  the 
content  of  crude  fiber  is  relatively  greater  than  in 
rye.  The  digestibility,  therefore,  is  likely  to  be 
hardly  as  high  as  for  rye,  although  no  data  on  this 
point  are  recorded. 

ITALIAN   RYE -GRASS 

Another  grass  that  has  received  some  attention 
as  a  forage  crop,  particularly  for  summer  pasture 
and  soiling,  is  Italian  rye -grass  (Lolium  Italicum) . 
This  grass  is  native  of  Europe,  and  has  been 
grown  there  for  a  long  time.  It  is  especially 
suitable  for  moist  soils,  or  for  soils  that  can  be 
irrigated,  and  responds  very  profitably  to  the 
application  of  water  or  heavy  fertilization. 

Preparation  of  soil  and  seeding 

The  preparation  of  soil  and  seeding  should  fol- 
low the  same  lines  as  those  suggested  for  orchard- 
grass.  When  seeded  in  the  fall,  great  care  should 
be  exercised  to  ensure  rapid  germination  and  early 
growth. 

From  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  seed  should  be 
used  per  acre,  preferably  broadcasted  both  ways 
by  hand,  and    lightly  covered   with    the    harrow. 


RYE-GRASS  71 

When  there  is  not  sufficient  moisture  to  ensure  an 
immediate  germination,  it  is  good  practice  to  go 
over  the  soil  with  a  light  roller.  This  compacting 
of  the  surface  will  encourage  the  upward  move- 
ment of  water,  and  have  a  tendency  to  ensure 
quick  germination  and  growth. 

Yield  and  value  of  rye-grass 

Rye -grass  produces  abundant  leaves.  It  grows 
two  to  three  feet  high.  It  may  be  harvested  in  the 
eastern  states  by  the  middle  of  May  or  first  of 
Jane.  While  the  yield  is  usually  not  so  great  as 
that  of  orchard -grass,  it  grows  much  more  rapidly, 
and  when  suitably  manured  will  make  two  or 
three  cuttings  for  soiling  purposes  in  the  same 
season.  When  an  abundance  of  plant -food  is 
available,  very  heavy  yields  are  obtained,  as  high 
as  sixteen  to  eighteen  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre 
having  been  recorded  as  the  entire  yield  from  three 
cuttings. 

When  in  the  best  condition  for  soiling,  or  when 
just  heading,  rye-grass  contains  about  the  same 
amount  of  dry  matter  as  orchard -grass,  although 
it  is  richer  in  nitrogenous  substance  and  poorer  in 
crude  fiber.  It  thus  makes  a  more  palatable  and 
richer  food  than  orchard -grass.  It  does  not  stand 
the  northern  winters  well,  and  its  best  use  in  this 
country,    except   in   the    South,  has    been    as   an 


72  FORAGE    CROPS 

annual,  the  land  being  re -seeded  each  year.  It 
makes  excellent  pasture,  relished  by  all  stock, 
and  yields  an  abundant  crop  of  hay  of  good  quality 
for  dairy  cows. 

Composition  of  Italian  Rye -Grass 

rv   „  t An  average 

One  ton  acre-yield 

contains  JEffiS? 

Per  cent.                  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 73.2                ...  ... 

Dry  matter 26.8                    536  6,432 

Ether  extract 1.3                      26  312 

Crude  fiber 6.8                    136  1,632 

Protein 3.1                      62  744 

Ash 2.5                      50  600 

Nitrogen -free  extract 13  3                    266  3,192 

The  large  quantity  of  dry  matter,  over  three 
tons  per  acre  (assuming  an  average  yield  of 
twelve  tons),  that  may  be  obtained  from  a  careful 
growing  and  handling,  and  its  capability  of  being 
cut  several  times,  make  it  a  most  desirable  crop 
when  the  conditions  favorable  for  its  best  develop- 
ment are  present.  In  order  that  these  large  yields 
may  be  secured,  however,  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  ripen,  but  cut  when  in  the  blossom  stage.  After 
each  cutting  it  should  be  top-dressed  with  fertili- 
zers rich  in  nitrates,  particularly  on  light  soils. 


CHAPTER   V 

MILLETS  AND  TEOSINTE 

Among  the  summer -growing  forage  plants,  the 
millets  have  long  been  prominent.  There  are  sev- 
eral distinct  kinds  of  millets,  belonging  to  different 
genera  of  the  grass  family.  The  Barnyard  millet 
is  Panicum  Crus-galli,  an  improved  form  of  the 
common  weedy  barnyard  grass.  The  Hungarian 
and  German  millets  belong  to  the  group  of  foxtail 
grasses  of  the  genus  Setaria  or  Chsetochloa,  a 
type  of  weedy  late  summer  grass  known  as  pigeon- 
grass  and  foxtail  grass.  The  Pearl  millet  is  a 
Pennisetum  (P.  spicatum) .  Another  group  of 
millets  is  of  the  genus  Panicum  (forms  of  P.  mil- 
iaceum).  The  Broom-corn  millet  (not  the  same 
as  the  broom -corn  grown  for  brooms)  is  of  this 
species.  The  term  Japanese  millet  is  often  used, 
but  it  has  little  significance  for  there  are  Japanese 
forms  of  several  kinds  of  millets;  it  is  oftenest 
used  for  the  Barnyard  group.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  the  term  millet  includes  a  number 
of  plants  very  unlike  botanically ;  but  they  are  all 
similar  in  being  grassy  summer- growing  plants 
suitable  for  haymaking  as  well  as  for  green  forage. 

(73) 


74  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

The  millets  belong  to  a  group  of  crops  that  grow 
quickly,  and  are  what  may  be  termed  "hot  weather 
plants."  They  do  not  thrive  in  cool  weather.  They 
are  useful  as  hay  catch- crops,  or  as  regular  forage 
crops  for  substituting  pastures,  or  for  soiling.  All 
the  kinds  of  millet  that  have  been  tested  possess 
valuable  characteristics,  although  the  recently 
introduced  Japanese  or  Barnyard  varieties  are 
proving  more  useful  for  green- forage  purposes 
than  the  older  and  better  known  kinds,  largely 
because  of  more  rapid  growth  and  larger  yields. 

All  the  millets  are  native  to  the  Old  World,  but 
the  cultivated  forms  are  cosmopolitan.  In  some 
countries,  some  of  the  millets  are  grown  for  the 
grain  for  human  food. 

BARNYARD   MILLET  (Figs.  4,  5,  6) 

Of  the  oriental  forms,  the  Barnyard  millet  has 
given  the  best  satisfaction  in  the  East  as  green 
forage.  It  grows  very  rapidly,  and  frequently 
reaches  a  height  of  four  to  six  feet.  When  cut  at 
the  right  time,  it  is  a  most  excellent  soiling  crop,  as 
it  is  succulent  and  palatable.  Maximum  crops  can 
be  secured  only  when  there  is  present  an  abundance 
of  all  of  the  fertility  elements  in  available  forms. 
A  crop  of  ten  tons  per  acre  of  this  forage  removes 
large  quantities  of  plant -food  elements,  practically 
all  of  which  are  absorbed  from  the  immediate  sur- 


BARNYARD   MILLET 


75 


Fig.  4.     Head  of 
Barnyard  millet 


face  and  within  a  very  short  time. 
Experience    in   the    growth  of   this 
crop  has   shown  that    the   artificial 
fertilizers    are    quite    as   useful    as 
yard   manure.    When   manure    can 
be  obtained  cheaply,  ten  to  twelve 
tons    per    acre    should    be    applied 
as    soon    as    the    land    is    plowed 
and    thoroughly   incorporated   with 
the    soil.    In  the   absence   of   yard 
manure,    a   heavy   dressing    should 
be    applied    of    a   mixture    of    ni- 
trate   of    soda,  acid  phosphate  and 
muriate    of    potash,    furnishing    at 
least   twenty -five   pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, twenty  of  available  phosphor- 
ic  acid  and   fifty  of    actual   potash 
per  acre.     An  increase  in  yield   of 
75   per  cent  has  followed   the    ap- 
plication   of   160    pounds   per    acre 
of  nitrate  of   soda,  making  a  very 
profitable  gain  from  this   practice. 
The   nitrate    not   only  supplies  the 
needed    nitrogen,    but    encourages 
a  larger  development    and   greater 
activity  on  the  part  of   the  plant, 
thus  enabling  it  to  secure  a  larger 
proportion    of    nitrogen    from    soil 
sources,  which    would   be    impossi- 


70  VOU AGE   CROPS 

ble  to  a  plant  of  less  vigorous  growth.  Since  the 
crop  is  grown  only  during  the  hot  summer 
season,  when  droughts  are  frequent,  this  practice 
of  applying  available  nitrogenous  food  is  very 
important. 

Preparation  of  soil,  and  seeding 

The  preparation  of  land  should  be  very  thorough, 
the  entire  surface  deeply  cultivated,  and  the  soil 
particles  made  as  fine  as  possible  in  order  to  insure 
a  ready  absorption  and  retention  of  moisture, 
making  conditions  favorable  for  quick  germination 
and  rapid  continuous  growth. 

The  crop  may  be  seeded  from  the  middle  of 
May  to  the  first  of  July,  either  broadcast  or  in 
drills.  When  labor  is  expensive,  and  the  soil  is 
reasonably  free  from  weeds,  the  broadcast  seeding 
is  recommended. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  use  ranges  from  thirty 
to  forty  pounds  per  acre,  broadcasted,  and  from 
ten  to  fifteen  pounds  drilled. 

Harvesting  and  yields  of  Barnyard  millet 

In  favorable  seasons,  the  crop  will  reach  the 
cutting  stage  in  fifty  days,  but  if  the  season  is  dry 
and  cold  proper  maturity  will  not  be  reached  in 
two  months  or  longer. 


Fig.  5.     Barnyard  millet  (Panicum  Crus-galli) 


BARB  YARD    MILLET  79 

When  used  for  soiling  purposes,  harvesting 
should  begin  when  the  plant  is  just  beginning  to 
show  heads.  At  this  stage,  the  plant  is  very  suc- 
culent and  is  eagerly  eaten  by  all  farm  stock. 
Inasmuch  as  it  grows  so  rapidly,  and  because  it 
develops  and  hardens  so  quickly  in  dry  weather, 
it  cannot  be  used  for  a  long  period  for  soiling  pur- 
poses, from  six  to  eight  days  being  the  range  under 
ordinary  seasonal  conditions.  Because  proper  at- 
tention is  not  given  to  this  point,  many  farmers 
regard  this  kind  of  millet  unfavorably.  When  cut 
at  this  stage  of  growth,  Barnyard  millet  contains 
a  relatively  small  percentage  of  crude  fiber, 
although  it  is  much  richer  in  the  non-nitrogenous 
substances  than  are  oats,  wheat  or  rye.  It  con- 
tains, on  the  average,  about  15  per  cent  of  dry 
matter.  The  large  yields  of  green  forage,— eight  to 
twelve  tons,  or  an  average  on  good  soils  of  about 
eight  tons, — make  the  total  amount  of  food  very 
satisfactory;  and  animals  will  consume  a  relatively 
larger  proportion  of  it  than  of  certain  other  kinds. 
As  high  as  seventy- five  pounds  per  day  have  been 
fed  with  satisfaction. 

For  hay,  Barnyard  millet  should  be  cut  just  as 
it  is  heading  out.  Although  somewhat  difficult  to 
cure,  it  makes  a  forage  which  is  very  palatable 
and  useful  for  winter  feeding.  Yields  of  hay  have 
often  reached  as  high  as  three  to  four  tons  per 
acre;  but  it  is  not  recommended  for  hay- making 


80 


Fi« 


* 


FORAGE    CROPS 

when  other  and  better  hay 
plants  can  be  successfully 
grown.  Farmers  are  too  likely 
to  defer  cutting  until  the  stalks 
begin  to  harden,  when  the  hay 
made  is  unpalatable,  even 
though  well  cured. 


Composition    and  Yield   of  Nutrients  op 
Barnyard    Millet 


Per  cent 

Water 84.76 

Dry  matter      .    .    .    .  15.24 

Ether  extract     .    .    .  .45 

Fiber 4.50 

Protein 1.50 

Ash 1.63 

Nitrogen-free  extract  7.16 


One  ton 
contains 

Lbs. 


304.3 

9.0 

90.0 

30.0 

32.6 

143.2 


An  average 
acre-yield 
furnishes 
Lbs. 


2438.4 

72.0 

720.0 

240.0 

260.8 

1145.6 


Common  millet. 
About  natural  size. 


FOXTAIL   MILLETS    (Figs.  7-10) 

The  foxtail  millets  are  of  several 
varieties.  The  common  millet  (Fig. 
7),  much  grown  in  this  country,  is 
an  old  standby  for  summer  forage 
and  catch- crop  hay,  being  much 
prized  for  its  quick  growth  and  its 
relatively  fine  soft  hay.  This  com- 
mon small  millet  is  regarded  as 
somewhat  representing  the  original 
form  of  the  foxtail  millets  (Chccto- 


FOXTAIL   MILLETS 


chloa  Italica ;  or  Setaria 
Italica  of  some  botanies). 
By  some  authorities  it  is  re- 
garded as  a  developed  form 
of  the  common  weedy  green 
foxtail  grass  (Chcetochloa 
viridis),  itself  an  introduc- 
tion from  the  Old  World. 
The  German  millet  is  a 
larger  and  bushy  -  headed 
dark-colored  form  (Fig.  8). 
The  Hungarian  millet  or 
Hungarian  grass  ( Chcetochloa 
Italica,  var.  Germanica  Fig. 
9),,  is  much  like  the  common 
millet,  but  is  somewhat 
taller,  more  branching,  the 
head  usually  not  nodding  and 
compact.  Golden  Wonder 
millet  (C.  Italica,  Fig.  10)  is 
a  very  robust  form,  reaching 
six  feet,  and  with  compound, 
drooping,  tawny  or  purplish  heads 
sometimes  a  foot  long.  The  four 
foxtail  millets  above  mentioned  are 
the  ones  that  are  best  known.  Ex- 
cept in  time  of  maturity  and  yield, 
they  do  not  differ  greatly  in  agri- 
cultural value. 


Fig.  8. 

German 

millet. 

Nearly 

natural 


82 


FORAGE    CHOPS 


Hungarian  millet   grows   very  quickly   and    is 
very   useful  for    supple-      vJ1 
menting    a    shortage    in 
the  regular  hay  crop,  or 
for    supplying    the    dairy 
herd   with   green    forage, 
although  not   so    desirable   as 
the  Barnyard  millet.    The  Ger 
man    and    Golden    millets    usually 
make  a  larger  yield   than  the  Hun- 
garian,  require   a  little   longer  time 
for  growth,  and  should  not  be  seeded 
later  than  the  first  of  July. 

In   all  these  varieties,    the    quantity 
of  seed  to  sow  is  about  one  bushel  per 
acre.     The    practices    recommended  for 
Barnyard  millet  in  preparation  of  soil, 
use    of    fertilizers    and    manures,    and 
time  of  harvesting,  should  be  adopted. 
All   varieties    of   millet    are    surface 
feeders;  large  crops  will  absorb  all    ; 
of  the  available  plant- food,  leaving 
the    land    in    poor    condition   for 
crops  following  the  same  season. 
The  time  of  cutting  is  espe- 
cially   important,    as    too         i'A-? 
complete    maturity    re-  •  iJw 

suits  in  poor  and  un- 
palatable hay. 


Fig.  9. 

Hungai-ian  millet. 

About  natural  size. 


FOXTAIL   MILLETS 

Composition  and  Yield  of  Nutrients  of 
Hungarian  Millet  Forage  and  Hay 


Per  cent 

Water 71.10 

Dry  matter    .    .    .  28.90 

Ether  extract     .    .  .70 

Fiber 9.20 

Protein 3.10 

Ash 1.70 

Nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract    ....  14.20 

HAY 

Water 7.70 

Dry  matter     .    .    .  92.30 

Ether  extract    .    .  2  10 

Fiber 27.70 

Protein 7.50 

Ash 6.00 

Nitrogen- free  ex- 
tract    ....  49.00 


Properly  made  millet  hay  of 
the  above  varieties  is  nutritive 
and  palatable,  the  average  com- 
position showing  it  to  be  richei 
in  protein  than  timothy. 

The  uses   of  the  foxtail 
millets  in  New  York  are  de- 
scribed as  follows  by 
Roberts    and    Clinton 
(Cornell  Bul- 
letin   135): 


980.0 


Fig.  10.     Golden 

Wonder  millet. 

About  three -fourth; 

natural  size. 


84  F Oli AGE    CROPS 

"They  are  not  recommended  as  being  valuable  as 
a  part  of  the  regular  rotation,  but  as  catch -crops 
or  special  crops  they  have  their  place.  They  are 
very  depleting  to  the  soil  and  many  have  had  un- 
satisfactory experience  in  feeding  them  to  stock. 
.  .  .  One  value  of  millet  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
can  be  sown  late ;  in  fact,  it  must  not  be  sown  until 
all  danger  from  frost  is  over.  It  develops  rapidly, 
and  during  midsummer  is  ready  to  begin  cutting 
for  forage  about  thirty  days  from  time  of  seeding. 
The  Hungarian  is  quicker  maturing  than  the  others 
and  for  late  sowing  is  preferable  to  either  the  com- 
mon or  the  German  millet.  In  such  a  year  as  1894 
or  1895,  when  many  farmers  found  their  hay  crop 
a  disappointment  and  were  at  a  loss  to  know 
how  to  supplement  it,  Hungarian  or  other  millets 
would  possibly  have  served  the  purpose  well. 

"The  soil  should  be  rich  and  given  thorough 
preparation.  Clay  soils  which  are  inclined  to  be 
lumpy  require  extra  precaution  in  fitting.  The 
amount  of  seed  required  varies  from  one-half 
bushel  to  three  pecks  per  acre,  which  should  be 
harrowed  in  lightly  and  rolled.  On  freshly  cleared 
or  bottom-land  soils  it  makes  a  rank  growth  and  is 
available  for  forage  at  a  time  when  it  is  usually 
found  necessary  to  supplement  the  pastures. 
Though  it  is  a  gross  feeder,  yet  this  fact  may  be  of 
actual  benefit  to  the  kinds  of  soil  just  mentioned. 

"When  stock  is  turned  in  upon  a  field  of  green 


FOXTAILS,  PEARL  MILLET  85 

millet  for  the  first  time,  or  a  heavy  feed  is  given, 
there  is  danger  that  serious  results  may  follow. 
Animals  not  accustomed  to  green  forage  should 
not  at  first  be  allowed  a  full  feed  of  any  green 
crop,  especially  millet,  but  should  be  given  only  a 
part  ration  of  the  green  material.  If  allowed  to 
gorge  themselves,  serious  results  may  follow.  If  it 
is  desired  that  the  animals  be  turned  upon  the 
crop  to  pasture,  this  should  be  done  only  after  their 
appetite  has  been  partly  appeased  by  other  food. 

"Millet  hay  is  not  in  popular  favor,  owing  to 
the  fatal  results  which,  in  some  cases,  have  fol- 
lowed its  use.  Just  why  these  unsatisfactory 
results  sometimes  follow  does  not  seem  to  be  clear. 
In  feeding  it  to  horses,  caution  should  be  observed 
and  the  millet  hay  used  in  conjunction  with  some 
other  coarse  fodder.  Much  of  the  value  of  millet 
hay  seems  to  depend  upon  the  time  of  cutting, 
which  should  be  done  soon  after  blossoming." 

PEARL   OR    CAT -TAIL   MILLET    (Fig.  11,  12) 

This  millet  is  highly  recommended  over  a  wide 
range  of  country.  It  is  a  summer  plant,  a  rank 
grower,  attains  a  great  height  when  mature,— 
seven  to  nine  feet,— and  produces  an  enormous 
quantity  of  forage.  The  Penicillaria  and  Maud's 
Wonder  millets  are  of  this  same  species  (Pennise- 
tum  spicatum) . 


86  FORAGE   CROPS 

Manures  and  fertilizers  for  Pearl  millet 

In  order  that  a  large  yield  of  succulent  forage 
may  be  secured,  Pearl  millet  should  be  grown  only 
on  naturally  rich  lands,  or  on  those  heavily  manured 
or  fertilized.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  and 
deeply  prepared,  for,  although  it  is  a  surface  feeder, 
the  roots  more  completely  occupy  the  soil  than  is 
the  case  with  the  Barnyard  or  other  kinds  of  mil- 
let. The  manures  should  be  broadcasted,  previous 
to  seeding,  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  twelve  tons  per 
acre.  Fertilizing  should  follow  the  recommenda- 
tions made  for  Barnyard  millet. 

Amount  of  seed  and  method  of  seeding 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  is  relatively  small, 
as  the  plants  possess  the  branching  habit.  If 
planted  in  rows  to  allow  of  tillage,  three  feet  apart, 
one  pound  of  seed  will  be  sufficient  for  an  acre. 
This  will  provide  a  seed  every  three  or  four  inches 
in  the  row.  If  broadcasted,  three  or  four  pounds 
per  acre  will  be  sufficient.  Pearl  millet  germinates 
quickly,  and  grows  very  rapidly.  It  withstands 
drought  well.  It  should  be  tilled,  the  surface  being 
kept  constantly  stirred,  if  best  results  are  to  be 
had,  particularly  in  dry  seasons.  Pearl  millet  is 
frequently  grown  with  vining  varieties  of  cowpeas, 
the  stalks  making  a  good  support  for  the  peas. 


88  FORAGE   CROPS 

Yield  and  value  of  crop 

The  largest  yield  of  palatable  and  digestible 
food  will  be  secured  if  Pearl  millet  is  cut  just  as  it 
begins  to  head.  This  stage  will  be  reached  in 
about  three  months  from  time  of  seeding;  that  is, 
if  planted  early  in  June,  it  will  be  ready  for  the 
beginning  of  harvest  the  latter  part  of  August  or 
first  of  September.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to 
head  out  fully  before  cutting,  because  the  plants 
rapidly  increase  in  crude  fiber  as  the  heads  begin 
to  form,  and  soon  become  hard  and  unpalatable. 
The  yields  vary  widely,  ranging  from  eight  to  over 
twenty  tons  per  acre,  the  latter  figure  being  reached 
when  all  soil  and  seasonal  conditions  are  favor- 
able, and  when  the  crop  is  allowed  to  mature. 

For  the  eastern  and  central  states  Pearl  millet 
does  not  possess  advantages  over  the  Barnyard 
millet,  except  possibly  in  its  yield,  although  the 
larger  yield  requires  a  longer  period  of  growth. 
For  a  catch -crop  it  is  not  so  desirable  as  the 
Barnyard  millet.  If  cut  just  before  heading,  it  is 
said  that  it  will  make  a  very  rapid  second  growth, 
which  may  be  harvested  in  a  month  to  six  weeks. 
The  experience  gained  in  the  eastern  and  middle 
states  does  not  confirm  the  advantages  of  this 
practice,  for,  while  the  plant  makes  a  considerable 
second  growth,  it  is  not  large  enough  ordinarily 
to  pay  for  the  use  of  the  land.    Farther  south  this 


PEARL  MILLET 


89 


r'.$ 


practice  may  be  found  to  be  more  successful.  If 
cut  after  making  a  growth  of  three  or  four  feet,  it 
might  make  a  profitable  second  crop,  the  total 
crop  being  much  larger  than  the  larger  first  reg- 
ular crop  and  the  smaller  second 
one.  Much  has  yet  to  be  learned 
concerning  the  best  method  of 
handling  this  plant. 

When  in  the  best   condition  for 
feeding,  Pearl  millet  contains  a  rela- 
tively low  content   of  dry  matter. 
Analyses    of 
crops  grown  at 
the  New  Jersey 
Station  showed  an  average  of  but 
17  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  with  a 
much  higher  content  of  crude  fiber 
than   in    Barnyard  millet.    It   may 
be   fed  in  the  same   way  as   Barn- 
yard millet,  however,  both  as  regards 
the  method  and  the  amount.    While 
Pearl  millet  has  been  recommended 
for  hay  and  for  silage,  it  does  not 
possess   any    superior  qualities    for 
these  uses,  corn  being  a  much  supe- 
rior plant,  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  palatability  and  yield  of  diges- 
Fig.  12.         tible  material  per  acre.    In  the  more 
Pearl  millet  (Pen-   southern    states,    and   in  the   semi- 

nisetum  spicaitim) 


90  FORAGE    CROPS 

arid  parts  of  certain  of  the  western  states,  the 
plant  is  very  highly  recommended,  because  of  its 
adaptability  to  the  longer  season  and  hotter 
weather. 


Composition  and  Yield  of  Nutrients  in  Pearl  Millet  When 
Suitable  for  Soiling 

One  ton  A"  average 

contains  aere-yield 
furnishes 

Per  cent                   Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 83.04               ...  ... 

Dry  matter     .........      16.96                339.2  2713.6 

Ether  extract .37                    7.4  59.2 

Fiber   ............        5.45                 109.0  872.0 

Protein 1.13                  22.6  180.8 

Ash 1.73                  34.6  276.8 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .  .    .   .        8.28                165.6  1324.8 


BROOM-CORN    OR    PROSO    MILLET     (Figs.  13,  14) 

The  Broom-corn  or  Panicle  millets  (Panicum 
miliaceum)  is  not  widely  known  as  a  farm  crop  in 
this  country,  as  it  is  not  so  useful  as  the  foxtail 
millets.  It  produces  heavily  of  seed  as  well  as  of 
forage,  it  matures  in  a  short  season,  and  it  seems 
to  be  able  to  withstand  dry  weather;  for  these 
reasons  it  is  somewhat  grown  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  semi -arid  regions,  where  its  grain  may  be 
substituted  for  corn.  There  are  several  varieties, 
distinguished  more  or  less  by  the  color  of  seeds. 
This  plant  seems  to  be  the  millet  of  history,  and 
it  is  more  popular  in  Europe  than  here. 


BROOM-CORN  MILLET 


91 


Broom- corn  millet  was  included  in  an  experi- 
ment at  the  New  Jersey  Station  that  was  designed 
to  test  the  value  as  forage  of  a  number  of  plants 
not  commonly  used  in 
the  East,  and  to  com- 
pare their  yield,  com- 
position and  usefulness 
with  those  generally 
grown .  Broom  -corn 
millet  produced  a 
large  stalk,  with 
but  little  foliage, 
and  when  fed  at 
the  time  that  it 
seemed  most  use- 
ful for  this  pur- 
pose (just  when 
headed  out),  it 
was  found  to 
be  unpalatable, 
more  than  one- 
half  being  un- 
eaten .  In  com- 
position, it  was 
superior  (in  yield  of  dry 
matter)  to  all  of  the  other 
kinds  grown  at  that  time, 
including  several  varieties 
of  maize,  kafir  corn,  millet, 


Fig.  13.  Broom-corn 
millet  (Panicum 
miliaceum) , 


92  FOB  AGE   CROPS 


Fig.  14.     Seeds  or  grains  of  Broom-corn  millet. 

sorghum  and  teosinte.  The  yield  was  sixteen 
and  two -thirds  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre, 
which  contained  7,637  pounds  of  dry  matter,  or 
practically  twice  as  much  dry  matter  as  was  con- 
tained in  the  yield  of  either  red  or  white  kafir 
corn.  Its  composition  was  such  as  to  furnish 
nearly  700  pounds  of  protein  per  acre,  or  more 
than  any  other  of  the  plants  generally  grown,  and 
again  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the  kafir  corn. 

From  the  standpoint  of  yield  of  dry  matter  and 
of  total  nutrients,  the  Broom- corn  millet  compared 
very  favorably  with  the  varieties  of  maize  usually 
grown  for  forage,  yet  because  of  lack  of  palata- 
bility  it  could  not  be  used  for  the  purpose.  It 
possesses  promising  characteristics,  in  particular 
its  power  of  gathering  plant-food;  and  further 
experiments  may  show  it  to  be  a  valuable  plant 
for  silage  in  regions  where  corn  does  not  develop. 


94  FORAGE    CROPS 

TEOSINTE     (Fig.  15) 

This  plant  is  similar  in  general  habit  to  millet," 
but  differs  in  its  tendency  to  stool.  It  belongs  to  a 
wholly  different  species  (Euchlana,  or  Beana,  luxu- 
rians)  from  the  other  crops  discussed  in  this  chap- 
ter, but  it  is  so  much  like  millet  in  its  cultural 
requirements  and  in  its  uses  that  it  may  be  dis- 
cussed with  them.  By  some  it  is  suggested  as  the 
original  of  Indian  corn.  A  single  plant  of  teosinte 
will  branch  and  make  a  very  large  number  of  dif- 
ferent plants.  So  far  as  plant -food  is  concerned, 
teosinte  makes  the  same  requirements  as  the  other 
very  rapid- growing  summer  plants.  Teosinte 
should  be  planted  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart, 
and  tilled.  Three  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  suffi- 
cient.   It  is  adapted  only  to  the  far  South. 

Yields  as  high  as  twenty- four  tons  per  acre  have 
been  secured,  although,  because  of  the  low  content 
of  dry  matter,  the  yield  of  actual  nutriment  is  very 
much  less  than  from  ten  tons  of  corn. 


Water .    .    . 

Per  cent 
,    .    .       90.13 

One  ton  contains 
Lbs. 

Dry  matter 

'.    .        9.87 

197.4 

Ether  extract 

.    .         0.34 

6.8 

Fiber  

.    .        2.69 

53.8 

Protein 

.    .        1.42 

28.4 

A«h , 

,  V.        1.36 

27  2 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .    .    , 

,    .    .         4.06 

81.2 

CHAPTER   VI 
THE   KAFIR    CORNS   AND   DOURAS 

The  genus  Sorghum,  one  of  the  grass  family, 
contains  three  rather  distinct  classes  of  plants  : 
(1)  The  sweet  or  saccharine  forms,  the  plants 
usually  known  as  "sorghum"  among  farmers;  (2) 
the  non- saccharine  fodder  sorghums;  (3)  broom- 
corn  (wholly  distinct  from  the  broom- corn  millet 
described  in  the  last  chapter).  All  these  various 
sorghums  are  considered  to  be  forms  of  one  vari- 
able species,  Sorghum  vulgare  or  Andropogon  Sor- 
ghum, native  to  the  Old  World. 

The  non-saccharine  fodder  sorghums  include  all 
the  douras  (spelled  also  dhoura  and  durra) ,  Egypt- 
ian corn,  milo  maize,  kafir  corn.  There  is  no  one 
name  that  is  now  used  to  designate  this  group, 
but  kafir  corn  is  now  best  known  and  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  destined  to  become  the  popular 
class  name,  although  doura  is  the  oldest  and 
most  attractive  name.  The  kafir  corns  bear  a 
contracted  dense  panicle  or  head,  in  distinction 
from  the  long,  wisp-like  heads  of  the  broom-corn; 
some  of  the  sweet  sorghums  bear  drooping  heads, 
but  they  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  their  sweet 
juice.  Of  the  kafir  corns  there  are  two  groups, 
— kafir  corn  proper,  with  erect,  rather  long  heads 

(95) 


Fig.  16.     Black-hulled  White    kafir  Corn- 


KAFIR   CORN  97 

and  not  flattened  seeds;  and  douras  proper,  with 
hanging  or  recurved  short  and  compact  heads  and 
flattened  seeds.  Jerusalem  corn  and  Yellow  milo 
maize  are  douras.  White  milo  maize  belongs  to 
the  kafir  group.  Some  of  the  forms  are  distin- 
guished in  Figs.  16  to  21  (all  figures  in  this  chap- 
ter except  Nos.  19,  22  and  23  are  from  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  photographs).  The  grain  in 
the  heads  of  the  kafir  corns  is  useful,  as  well  as  the 
fodder,  but  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to 
discuss  the  grain  production.  Forms  of  doura  and 
kafir  corn  have  been  known  in  this  country  for 
many  years,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  they  have 
come  to  have  real  agricultural  importance,  due 
largely  to  their  adaptation  to  the  hot  and  dry 
regions  of  the  western  country. 

Kafir  corn  is  a  valuable  plant  for  dry  hot 
countries,  and  also  for  the  East,  since  it  is  a  rapid 
grower,  producing  a  large  number  of  wide,  luxu- 
riant leaves  that  are  extremely  palatable.  It  serves 
an  excellent  purpose  for  seeding  with  such  legumi- 
nous crops  as  cowpeas,  serving  as  a  support  for  the 
pea,  aiding  thereby  to  produce  a  much  larger  yield 
of  food  of  higher  quality  than  if  either  were  seeded 
alone.  Plants  of  the  same  nature  are  Jerusalem 
corn,  Rural  Branching  doura,  Yellow  Branching 
doura  or  milo  maize,  and  Evergreen  broom -corn. 

The  seed  of  all  these  plants  is  similar  to  that  of 
sorghum  and  may  be  similarly  treated.    It  may  be 


FORAGE    CEO  PS 


Fig.  17.     Typical  head  of  Black- 
Hulled  White    kafir  Com. 


sown  broadcast  at  the 
rate  of  four  to  five  pounds 
per  acre,  or  planted  in 
rows  and  cultivated  as  for 
Indian  corn ;  the  latter  is 
the  better  method  when 
large  yields  are  desired. 

Kafir  corn  is  similar  to 
sweet  sorghum  in  habit 
of  growth.  It  grows  from 
five  to  seven  feet  high, 
with  a  stalk  much  like 
corn.  The  leaves  are 
heavy  and  somewhat 
stiff er  than  those  of  corn. 
They  run  from  one  to  two 
and  one -half  feet  long. 
The  grain  appears  on  a 
head  that  reaches  a  length 
of  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches;  but  these  heads 
are  compact,  and  do  not 
spread  out,  as  in  the 
sweet  sorghums;  on  the 
mature  head  there  is  no 
stem  in  sight,  except  at 
the  base,  the  grain  only 
being  visible. 

The  different  kinds  of 


KAFIR   COKN  99 

this  class  of  plants  should  be  seeded  the  latter 
part  of  May  or  first  of  June.  They  will  make  a 
crop  ready  for  harvesting  in  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  months.  For  green  forage  they  should  be 
cut  as  they  are  just  coming  in  head,  in  order 
to  secure  the  best  yield  of  succulent  and  nutri- 
tious food.  They  harden  rapidly  after  seed  be- 
gins to  form.  In  the  western  states,  these  plants 
are  largely  grown  for  the  grain,  the  ground  meal 
making  an  excellent  substitute  for  corn  meal. 
While  the  dried  fodder  or  hay  makes  a  good  for- 
age, it  possesses  no  advantages  in  humid  climates 
over  crops  that  are  better  known  and  more  easily 
handled,  as,  for  example,  corn.  In  regions  of  little 
rainfall,  these  crops  are  of  unusual  value. 

Composition  of  Kafir  Corn  and  Allied  Plants  When 
Suitable  for  Soiling 


Kind 
Red  kafir  corn      .    .    .    . 

Water 
81.64 

Fat 

$ 
0.63 

Fiber 

* 
4.81 

Protein 
l.Sl 

Nitrogen- 
Ash        free 

extract 

i         % 
1.32         9.79 

White  kafir  corn      .    .    . 

83.44 

0.65 

4.57 

1.88 

1.44 

8.02 

Rural  Branching  doura  . 

85.89 

0.38 

4.71 

1  74 

1.26 

6.02 

Evergreen  brocm-corn  . 

,  77.08 

0.49 

8.58 

2.02 

1.69 

10.14 

Yellow-branching  doura 

> 

or  milo  maize   .    .    .    . 

83.19 

0.57 

5.51 

1.70 

1  49 

7.54 

Early  Learning  corn  .   . 

76.43 

0.64 

4.93 

1.89 

0  96 

15.15 

The  above  analyses  are  of  plants  grown  at  the 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station.  For  comparison, 
Early  Learning  corn  was  planted  at  the  same  time, 
and  under  the  same  conditions  of  soil  and  manage- 


100  F Oli AGE    CROPS 

ment.  The  crops  were  cut  when  in  best  stage  for 
soiling,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Evergreen 
broom -corn,  were  palatable  and  readily  eaten  by 
regularly  soiled  dairy  cows.  It  will  be  observed 
at  once  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Evergreen 
broom -corn,  all  the  crops  showed  a  much  lower 
content  of  dry  matter  than  field  corn. 

Nutrients  Per  Acre  in  Average  Crops 


Kind 

Yield 
per 
acre 

Tons 

Dry 
matter 

Lbs. 

Pro- 
tein 

Lbs. 

Fat 
Lbs. 

Fiber  ' 
Lbs. 

Nitrogen- 
free 

extract 
Lbs. 

Total 
nutri- 
ents 
Lbs. 

Red  kafir  corn     .    .    . 

8.34 

3,062 

302 

105 

802 

1,633 

2,842 

White  kafir  corn      .    . 

8.68 

2,875 

326 

113 

793 

1,392 

2,625 

Rural  Branchingdourt 

1 15.53 

4,383 

540 

118 

1,463 

1,870 

3,991 

Evergreen  broom-corn 

16.66 

7,637 

673 

163 

2,859 

3,379 

7,074 

Yellow-branching 

doura,or  milo  maize 

19.55 

6,573 

665 

223 

2,154 

2,948 

5,991 

Early  Learning  corn  . 

15.26 

7,194 

577 

195 

1,505 

4,624 

6,900 

In  this  table  is  shown  the  yield  per  acre  as  well 
as  the  actual  nutrients  produced.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  Yellow  Branching  doura  gave  the 
largest  yield  of  total  fodder,  and  the  Red  kafir 
the  lowest;  the  Evergreen  broom- corn  showed  the 
largest  yield  of  dry  matter,  and  the  White  kafir 
the  lowest ;  the  Early  Learning  corn  showed  the  next 
largest  yield  of  dry  matter,  and  a  much  lower  con- 
tent of  crude  fiber  than  the  Evergreen  broom -corn. 
The  yield  of  dry  matter,  excluding  fiber,  was  5,690 
pounds  for  the  Learning  corn,  and  4,779  for  the 
Evergreen  broom- corn,  a  gain  for  the  Learning  of 


KAFIR    CORN 


101 


911  pounds,  or  19  per  cent.  On 
the  dry  matter  basis,  therefore, 
the  only  variety  that  at  all  com- 
pared with  maize  was  the  Ever- 
green broom -corn,  which  is  very 
inferior  in  palatability  and  diges- 
tibility. The  kafir  corns  are  not 
comparable  with  corn  on  the  basis 
of  yield  of  nutrients,  and  are  not 
to  be  recommended  except  as  sub- 
stitutes for  corn  in  climates  too 
dry  for  the  latter. 

One  point  should  not  bo  lost 
sight  of  with  all  these  quick-grow- 
ing summer  crops,— they  are 
relatively  exhaustive  of  the  avail- 
able plant -food  in  the  surface 
soil.  For  example,  a  crop  of  eight 
tons  of  Barnyard  millet,  which 
fairly  represents  this  group  of 
forage  crops,  will  remove  from 
an  acre  in  fifty  to  seventy-five 
days  in  round  numbers 

50  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
26  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
104  pounds  of  potash. 

The  same  yield  of  maize  will  re- 
move from  an  acre  in  eighty  to 
one  hundred  days  only 


^^-t 


'ig.  18.     Typical  head 
of  Red  kafir  corn 


FOE AGE    CROPS 

45  pounds  of  nitrogen, 

20  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 

50  pounds  of  potash. 

This  is  10  per  cent  more  nitrogen, 
30  per  cent  more   phosphoric  acid 
and  over  100  per  cent  more  potash 
removed  by  the  special  crops  than 
by  the  corn.    The  land,  therefore,  is 
more   rapidly   and    completely    de- 
pleted of  its  available  plant-food  by 
these    summer -grown    plants;    and 
this  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
they   cannot    be    successfully 
grown  on  poor  soils,  and  that 
subsequent    crops,    that  have 
apparently  less  ability  to  ap- 
propriate   plant- food,    cannot 
be  successfully  grown  without 
liberal  manuring  or  fertilizing. 
These    characteristics    should 
be    always    taken    into    con- 
sideration   when    substituting 
this  class  of  crops  for  corn  in 
forage  crop  rotations. 

KAFIR  CORN  FOR  DRY  REGIONS 


Fig.  19.   Yellow  milo  maize, 
one  of  the  doura  group. 


It  has  been  said  that  the 
non- saccharine  sorghums  are 


KAFIR   COBiV  IN  KANSAS  103 

especially  adaptable  to  semi- arid  and  hot  regions. 
It  may  be  well,  therefore,  to  present  a  brief  account 
of  these  plants  to  show  their  value  for  the  interior 
western  country. 

The  results  of  experiments  at  the  Kansas  Ex- 
periment Station  are  probably  applicable  for  those 
regions  in  which  the  crop  is  a  prominent  one,  and 
a  brief  resume  and  adaptation  of  the  report  of 
Professor  J.  Gr.  Haney,1  of  that  Station,  comprises 
the  remainder  of  this  account  of  kafir  corn. 


Varieties  for  dry  regions 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  non- saccharine 
sorghums,  but  only  three  that  have  come  under 
the  name  of  kafir  corn.  The  name  kafir  comes 
from  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  natives  of  South 
Africa,  whose  country  is  known  by  the  same  name 
of  kafir.  Kafir  corn  is  sometimes  known  as  Afri- 
can millet.  The  three  varieties  which  have  received 
most  attention  are,  in  the  order  they  were  intro- 
duced: (1)  The  White,  (2)  the  Red,  and  (3)  the 
Black- hulled  White.  The  last  may  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  first  by  noticing  that  the  chaff 
or  hull  which  partly  envelops  the  grain  is  black, 
while  in  the  first  the  chaff  or  hull  is  nearly  the 
color  of  the  grain;  hence,  the  first  is  called  White 
and  the  last  Black- hulled  White.    In  the  Red,  the 

borage  and  Fodders,  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Report  for  1900. 


104  F  OK  AGE   CROPS 

color  develops  as  the  seed  matures,  and  at  maturity 
is  very  nearly  a  brick -red.  The  kafirs  should  not 
be  confounded  with  their  sisters — Jerusalem  corn, 
milo  maize  or  rice -corn. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  non- saccharine  sorghums 
that  will  mature  in  Kansas  have  been  tested  side 
by  side.  For  the  extreme  northwestern  counties  of 
Kansas,  observation  shows  that  kafir  corn  is  not 
so  well  adapted  as  Jerusalem  corn  or  rice -corn. 
The  altitude  being  high,  the  short  seasons  and 
cool  nights  seem  to  affect  the  kafir  corns  so  that 
they  often  will  not  mature  seed.  Although  they 
always  make  fodder,  and  sometimes  a  good  crop 
of  seed,  they  are  not  so  reliable  as  the  others.  The 
White  kafir  corn  with  some  is  the  favorite  for  fod- 
der, and  all  varieties  have  their  admirers,  but  at 
the  Kansas  Station  all  have  been  abandoned  for 
the  Black-hulled  White.  It  has  proved  the  heaviest 
yielder  in  both  grain  and  fodder,  and  if  there  is 
any  difference  between  it  and  the  Red  for  resisting 
dry  weather,  it  is  in  favor  of  the  Black-hulled 
White.  There  is  a  greater  difference  between  the 
Red  and  the  White  in  these  respects  than  between 
the  Red  and  the  Black -hulled  White. 

For  the  first  seven  years  the  Red  was  grown. 
The  Black-hulled  White  was  then  tested,  and  from 
1896  to  1898  the  two  varieties  were  grown  side  by 
side,  the  Red  giving  an  average  yearly  yield  of 
Uiirty-seven  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  Black- hulled 


Fig.  20.     Typical  head  of  Dwarf  milo  maize,  a  form  or  strain 
of  the  Yellow  milo  maize. 


106  FORAGE    CHOPS 

White  forty- three  bushels  per  acre.    The  yield  of 
grain  per  acre  by  years  is  as  follows: 

Red  Black-hulled  White 

bushels  bushels 

1896 41  48 

1897 41  48 

1898 28  33 

Totals 110         129 

Averages 37  43 

In  western  Kansas,  many  farmers  raise  the 
Red,  thinking  it  a  little  hardier  and  earlier.  In 
central  Kansas  some  feeders  raise  both  the  Red 
and  the  Black -hulled  White,  and  feed  alternately, 
the  stock  seeming  to  relish  the  change. 

Records  show  the  Red  to  be  from  a  week  to 
ten  days  earlier  than  the  Black- hulled  White,  but 
this  difference  is  of  little  importance  in  central 
Kansas.  Kafir  corn  planted  the  middle  of  May  is 
ripe  the  middle  of  September. 

Soils  and  conditions  of  growth 

Kafir  corn  will  grow  very  nearly  within  the 
same  climatic  limits  as  Indian  corn,  and  under 
ordinary  conditions  will  produce  a  crop  when  corn 
does.  However,  it  seems  to  require  a  slightly 
warmer  climate  for  its  best  development.  When 
its  growth  is  being  held  back  by  unfavorable  con- 
ditions, frost  comes  before  it  is  ripe.  It  responds 
as  readily  to  good  soil  and  favorable  conditions  as 


KAFIR    CORN  IN   DRY   REGIONS  107 

any  other  crop;  yet,  on  poor  land,  and  under 
conditions  that  would  not  produce  a  crop  of  corn  at 
all,  kafir  corn  does  surprisingly  well.  It  is  a  very 
strong  feeder,  having  an  extended  root  system 
which  reaches  deep  and  wide  for  necessary 
moisture. 

Dry -weather -resisting  qualities 

Kafir  corn  is  the  greatest  dry -weather -resisting 
crop  that  can  be  grown  in  Kansas.  It  grows  and 
develops  in  proportion  to  the  moisture  which  it 
can  collect  by  its  extended  root  system,  and,  when 
unable  to  continue  growing,  it  stops  and  lies  dor- 
mant, so  to  speak,  until  the  moisture  does  come, 
and  then  continues  its  growth.  If  the  rains  are 
sufficient,  and  the  frost  does  not  come  too  soon,  it 
will  make  a  good  crop,  although  it  has  stood  com- 
paratively dried  up  for  six  weeks.  Corn  to  some 
extent  will  renew  its  growth  after  a  moderately  dry 
period,  but  not  in  comparison  with  kafir  corn. 

Preparation  of  land  in  dry  regions 

Listing  is  not  generally  satisfactory.  Being  slow 
to  start,  the  plant  needs  to  be  up  where  it  gets 
all  the  warmth  possible,  which  is  not  the  case  in  a 
lister  furrow.  And,  after  listing,  if  a  dashing  rain 
comes  and  runs  the  soil  down  in  the  furrows  before 
the  plants  are  well  started,  there  will  not  be  a  good 


108 


FORAGE    CHOPS 


stand.  It  does  not  have  sufficient  force  to  push 
through  soil  that  has  washed  down  and  settled 
over  it.  Surface -planted  land  may  be  affected  by 
dashing  rains,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be.  The 
washing  and  settling  of  the  soil  by  rain,  of  course, 
depends  a  great  deal  on  the  character  of  the  soil, 


Fig.  21.  Forms  of  kafir  corn,  and  a  sweet  sorghum.  —  (1)  Brown  doura; 
(2)  Black-hulled  White  kafir  corn;  (3)  Red  kafir  corn;  (4)  Kavanaugh 
sorghum;  (5)  Yellow  milo  maize;  (6)  Large  African  millet,  or  White 
milo  maize. 


KAFIR   CORN   IN  DRY  RMQIONS  109 

as  some  soils  wash  and  pack  more  readily  than 
others.  Listing,  however,  in  the  western  and  drier 
sections  is  the  favorite  method  of  planting,  as  it 
takes  less  work,  encourages  the  roots  to  go  deeper 
into  the  soil,  thus  better  resisting  drought  lie 
rows  should  be  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the 
seed  dropped  four  to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row 
for  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

For  surface  planting,  fall  plowing  is  very  gen- 
erally favored.  The  disadvantages  of  fall  plowing 
are-  The  blowing  of  the  loose  soil,  and  the  weeds, 
which  thrive  best  on  fall  plowing.  Otherwise  a 
good   disking  or  fall   plowing  furnishes  the  ideal 

seed-bed. 

Spring  plowing  should  not  be  done  until  time  to 
plant.    The  plowing  should  not  be  deeper  than  is 
necessary  to  turn  the  ground  well  and  cover  trash. 
A  very  essential  feature  in  the  preparation  ot  the 
seed-bed  is  to  compact  the  soil  as  soon  as  plowed, 
so  as  to  hold  the  moisture  near  the  surface.    The 
plowed  soil  should  not  be  left  as  smooth  on  the 
surface  as  when  a  roller  is  used,  nor  as  fine  as 
an  ordinary  harrow  would  leave  it.    The  day  the 
land   is   plowed,  it  should    be  disked,  harrowed, 
then   rolled,  and   harrowed    again,   to    make   the 
surface  fine  and  compact.    The  press  drill,  with 
all   the  drills   left  on,  is  the  best  implement   for 
planting,  if  done  the  same  day  that  the  land   is 
plowed. 


HO  FORAGE    CHOPS 

Distance  apart  and  seed  required 

For  hay  or  fodder,  it  should  be  planted  close, 
and  the  greatest  yield  may  be  secured  by  broad- 
casting or  putting  in  with  a  wheat  drill,  set  to  sow 
one  and  one -half  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  For 
producing  grain  it  should  be  planted  in  rows  with 
a  view  to  cultivating.  For  the  western  and  drier 
country,  rows  should  be  three  to  three  and  one -half 
feet  apart,  and  the  seed  from  four  to  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  rows,  while  for  the  eastern  areas  of 
greater  rainfall,  better  results  are  obtained  by  put- 
ting the  rows  two  and  one- half  to  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  seed  from  two  to  four  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  For  western  planting  six  to  seven  pounds  per 
acre  will  be  all  the  seed  required,  while  for  eastern 
planting  ten  to  twelve  pounds  per  acre  will  give 
the  best  results  for  grain. 

Any  drill  or  drill  planters  may  be  used  if 
adapted  to  such  small  seeds,  and  to  drop  them 
the  proper  distance  apart.  Perhaps  the  most  prac- 
tical is  the  ordinary  grain  drill,  tacking  a  piece  of 
pasteboard  over  all  the  holes  except  those  which 
will  plant  the  rows  at  the  proper  distance. 

Time  to  plant 

Kafir  corn,  having  a  rather  low  vitality,  and 
growing    slowly    after    starting,    should    not    be 


KAFIR    CORN   IN  DBF  REGIONS  113 

planted  until  after  the  ground  is  well  warmed,  and 
there  is  no  danger  of  frost.  It  comes  properly  just 
after  corn  planting,  tliere  being  no  hurry  until  the 
last  week  in  May,  but  it  should  be  in  early  enough 
to  have  plenty  of  time  to  ripen  before  frost,  taking 
into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  plant  makes 
but  little  growth  in  very  dry  periods. 

Seeding  in  dry  regions 

As  in  all  crops,  it  is  essential  that  good  seed  be 
planted  as  a  first  requisite  to  a  high  yield  and  a 
good  stand.  Kafir  corn  heats  very  often,  when 
stored  in  quantity  in  bins,  or  when  sacked  and  in 
a  dry  place,  especially  if  the  sack  is  closely  woven 
and  there  is  some  dust  in  the  seed.  It  is' always 
risky  to  trust  seed  that  has  been  stored  in  any 
quantity  in  a  close  bin,  as  its  germinating  power 
may  be  impaired.  Hence,  seed  that  is  not  fresh, 
or  new,  should  not  be  trusted.  It  may  even  sprout 
in  a  germinating  pan,  and  yet  have  a  low  vitality 
that  would  give  a  poor  stand. 

The  best  heads  from  the  best  plant  in  the  field, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  should  furnish  the  seed 
for  the  next  year.  If  the  seed  is  left  to  cure  on  the 
stalk  in  the  shock,  the  selection  may  be  made  at 
any  time  before  thrashing;  if  left  on  the  head  and 
stored  away  in  thin  tiers  in  a  dry  place,  until 
needed  for  planting,  good  seed  is  insured. 


114 


FORAGE    CROPS 


Cultivation  of  kafir  corn 

The  cultivation  should  be  the  same  as  for  corn, 
frequent  and  shallow,  rather  than  deep  and  infre- 
quent. Harrowing  early  is  almost  indispensable  in 
order  to  keep  down  weeds.  After  the  plants  are 
three  inches  high,  they  will  stand  almost  any 
amount  of  harrowing  and  this  may  be  continued 
until  eight  inches  high. 


%F\ 


Fig.  24      Roots  of  kafir  corn,  sixty  days  after  planting. 


KAFIR    CORN   IN  DRY  REGIONS 


115 


Harvesting  time  for  grain 

Kafir  corn  remains  green  until  frost,  and  the 
seed  does  not  shatter;  so,  if  grain  is  the  only  con- 
sideration, there  is  no  great  hurry  to  harvest;  it 
can  stand  until  after  frost  and  the  stalk  is  dry. 
But,  generally,  the  fodder  is  a  consideration,  as 
well  as  the  grain,  and  then  the  problem  is  to  cut 
when  the  best  results  from  both  may  be  obtained. 


Fig.  25.    Koots  oi  sorghum,  sixty  days  alter  piantixig. 


116  FORAGE    CROPS 

The  longer  the  fodder  stands,  the  harder  and  less 
palatable  it  becomes,  while  if  cut  too  early  the 
best  yield  of  grain  is  not  secured.  After  the  grain 
is  hardened  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  mash  between 
the  thumb  and  finger,  and  there  is  apparently 
little  moisture  in  the  seed,  there  will  be  very  little 
shrinkage  in  the  grain.  This  would  perhaps  be 
called  "just  past  the  hard- dough  stage."  If  citt 
earlier,  the  fodder  will  be  better  feed,  but  there 
will  be  a  considerable  shrinkage  in  the  grain. 

Methods  of  harvesting 

One  thing  that  has  kept  this  crop  from  being 
more  generally  raised  is  the  problem  of  harvesting. 
There  are  a  number  of  methods,  and  they  all  have 
their  merits.  If  the  fodder  is  desired  for  feed,  it 
is  perhaps  best  to  cut  stalk  and  all,  and  leave  it  in 
the  shock  until  dry.  The  best  machine  for  accom- 
plishing this  is  the  corn-binder,  which  leaves  it  in 
bundles  of  convenient  size  for  handling,  and  the 
fodder  is  held  together.  In  the  western  and  drier 
regions,  if  not  planted  too  thick,  it  does  not 
grow  so  high  that  it  cannot  bo  cut  with  an  ordi- 
nary grain  harvester,  and  this  method  is  quite 
extensively  used.  The  ordinary  corn  sled  may 
also  be  used  for  cutting,  and  if  the  seed  is  to  be 
fed  with  the  fodder,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  in- 
expensive. 


KAFIR   CORN  IN  DRY  REGIONS  117 


111  threshing,  the  whole  stalk  can  be  run 
through  a  common  grain- separator,  but  this  is 
hard  on  the  machine,  and  as  a  general  thing  a 
thrasher  will  not  do  such  work  a  second  season. 
The  fodder  is  cut  and  broken  up,  and,  while  some 
hold  that  this  is  an  advantage,  it  soon  loses  its 
flavor,  and,  if  not  thoroughly  dry,  will  heat  and 
spoil  after  stacking.  Stock  will  eat  the  thrashed, 
broken- up  fodder  while  it  is  fresh  better  than 
when  whole,  but  in  a  short  time  it  gets  stale. 

When  the  kafir  is  bound,  the  grain  may  be 
removed  by  thrusting  the  heads  into  the  cylinder 
of  a  thrashing-machine  for  an  instant,  and  throw- 
ing the  fodder  off  on  a  wagon.  When  it  is  desired 
to  take  the  fodder  at  once  from  the  field,  this  would 
perhaps  prove  the  most  economical  method. 

When  planted  thick  or  sowm  broadcast  for  hay 
or  fodder  alone,  it  should  be  cut  when  most  of 
the  seeds  or  heads  are  in  the  milk  or  early-dough 
stage.  At  this  time  more  nourishment  will  be  in 
the  stalks  and  leaves;  besides,  not  being  so  hard 
as  when  fully  matured,  it  is  more  easily  digested, 
stock  eat  it  more  readily,  and  there  is  less  waste. 
A  great  many  make  the  mistake  of  cutting  too 
early,  often  with  the  view  of  getting  a  second  crop. 
The  nourishment  in  any  feed  is  conditioned  on  the 
process  of  maturing;  the  compounds  must  be 
elaborated  and  fixed  in  the  tissue  before  they  are 
food.    Cutting  any  feed  before  the  blooming  period 


118 


FOB AGE    CHOPS 


may  give  a  great  bulk  of  material,  but  it  is 
watery;  it  dries  out,  the  fodder  shrinks,  and  an 
animal  cannot  eat  enough  of  it  to  satisfy  the  appe- 
tite. One  crop  is  all  that  ought  to  be  expected 
from  one  seeding,  and  more  profit  is  made  by  a 
single  crop  than  two,  if  labor  is  counted  as  worth 
anything.  The  feed  secured  by  two  cuttings  may 
go  a  little  farther  than  the  feed  secured  by  the 


Fig.  26,     Matured   kafir  corn   roots. 


KAFIR    CORN  IN  DRY  REGIONS 


119 


single    cutting,   but    it  will  not  go    nearly  twice 
as  far. 

Cutting  and  curing  for  hay 

As  before  stated,  kafir  corn  should  be  cut  when 
the  seed  is  in  the  milk  or  early-dough  stage.  The 
cutting  may  be  done  with  a  grain-binder,  and 
shocked  to  cure  as  small  grain.  This  leaves  it  in  a 
very  fine  condition  to  handle  when  feeding,  but  is 


Fig.  27.     Matured  sorghum  roots 


120  FORAGE    CROPS 

rather  hard  on  a  machine  and  somewhat  expensive. 
The  ordinary  method  is  to  cut  with  a  mower,  and 
the  crop  should  be  left  to  cure  well  before  raking. 
Ordinarily,  in  the  middle  and  western  part  of 
Kansas,  after  being  cut  and  raked,  it  is  put  into 
large  shocks  or  small  ricks  containing  from  a  ton 
to  three  tons  each.  This  is  done  with  a  hay -gath- 
erer, "buck -rake"  or  "go -devil,"  and  saves  a  great 
deal  of  handling.  It  keeps  in  excellent  condition 
when  treated  this  way,  and  can  be  hauled  when 
needed.  Under  ordinary  conditions  kafir  corn  will 
be  ready  to  harvest  for  hay  in  about  105  days  after 
planting,  and  this  should  be  before  frost,  as  freez- 
ing while  green  is  detrimental;  besides,  the  hay 
will  not  cure  as  well  in  cool  weather,  and  it  is 
essential  that  it  be  as  perfectly  cured  as  possible. 

Yield  of  grain  in  kafir  corn 

The  yield  of  grain  will  range  from  twenty  to 
ninety  bushels  per  acre,  with  an  average  of  about 
forty-five  bushels  in  eastern  Kansas;  in  the 
western  and  drier  parts  of  Kansas  it  is  smaller, 
though  there  the  difference  in  yield  between  kafir 
corn  and  Indian  corn  is  proportionately  greater 
than  in  the  eastern  parts.  At  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion the  average  yield  of  kafir  corn  for  eleven 
years  was  forty- six  bushels  per  acre,  while  for 
Indian    corn   it    was    thirty -four    and    five -tenths 


KAFIR    CORN   IN  DRY    REGIONS  121 

bushels.  The  yield  of  hay  will  also  vary  widely 
from  one-half  to  three  tons  per  acre,  according  to 
climate,  soil  and  season. 


Storing  the  grain 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  storing  the  seed 
in  close  bins,  in  quantity,  especially  if  not  well 
cleaned.  It  settles  together  so  closely  that  air 
seems  to  be  excluded  and  heating  results.  In  the 
spring  during  damp  spells,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
shovel  the  seed  from  one  bin  to  another,  or  from 
one  side  of  the  bin  to  the  other,  to  keep  it  from 
spoiling.  Slightly- heating  does  not  injure  it  for 
feeding  purposes,  but  destroys  its  germinating 
power.  There  is  often  damage  to  the  heads  when 
stored  in  corn -cribs,  but  it  is  not  so  probable  as 
in  the  thrashed  grain. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   SWEET   SORGHUMS 

The  sweet  or  saccharine  sorghums  are  used 
both  for  the  making  of  syrup  and  for  forage. 
They  are  more  corn -like  in  appearance  than  the 
kafirs  because  the  panicle  is  more  like  a  corn 
tassel  in  form.  This  panicle  or  head  is  usually 
loose  and  open,  although  it  may  be  more  or  less 
dense  when  its  grain  is  ripe.  The  grain  is  borne 
in  the  panicle  or  tassel,  not  in  ears.  The  general 
directions  for  the  growing  of  the  kafir  corns 
(Chapter  VI)  apply  very  well  to  the  sorghums. 

The  varieties  of  sorghum  well  adapted  for 
soiling  are  Early  Amber  and  Early  Orange.  The 
Early  Orange  produces  a  larger  and  heavier 
growth,  and  is  a  little  later  than  the  Early  Amber, 
and  is  thus  more  suitable  for  sections  in  which  the 
seasons  are  long.  The  soils  best  adapted  for  sor- 
ghums are  deep,  moist  loams,  or  those  most  favor- 
able for  maize,  although  the  crop  may  be  grown 
successfully  on  light  lands  if  they  are  well  ferti- 
lized. Sorghum  seems  to  be  capable  of  withstanding 
drier  conditions  than  corn,  and  thus  its  use  is 
increasing  where  droughty  conditions  are  liable 
to  occur. 

(122) 


SWEET   SOUGH  UN  123 

Preparation  of  soil  and  seeding 

The  preparation  of  soil  for  sorghum  should  be 
similar  to  that  recommended  for  corn, —  a  deep, 
well -cultivated  seed-bed,  but  for  sorghum  the 
crop  should  preferably  be  immediately  preceded 
by  a  cultivated  crop,  in  order  to  free  the  land  of 
weeds.  The  plants  germinate  readily,  but  make  a 
very  thin  and  slow  early  growth,  thus  rendering  it 
difficult  t®  keep  clear  of  weeds. 

When  the  crop  is  intended  primarily  for  forage, 
it  may  be  seeded  either  thickly  in  rows,  or  broad- 
casted. If  seeded  in  rows,  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  sufficient.  If  broad- 
casted, twenty  to  twenty -five  pounds  will  be 
required.  The  crop  should  not  be  planted  until 
the  soil  is  thoroughly  warmed,  and  the  weather 
likely  to  be  hot,  as  the  plant  does  not  thrive  in 
cold,  moist  weather.  Broadcast  seeding  is  not 
recommended  except  on  clean  lands,  as  the  weeds 
are  likely  to  start  vigorous  growth  and  seriously 
reduce  the  yield  of  the  sorghum. 

To  grow  maximum  crops  the  land  should  be 
well  manured  or  fertilized;  inasmuch  as  it  is  a 
cultivated  plant,  which  roots  more  deeply  than  the 
millets,  the  nitrogen  requirements  are  not  so  ex- 
acting. However,  the  soil  should  be  abundantly 
supplied  with  available  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash.   A  good  dressing  of  manure  of  six  to  eight 


SWEET  SORGHUM  125 

tons,  well  cultivated  into  the  soil,  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  an  application  of  200  to  300  pounds  per 
acre  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  containing 

Nitrogen 3  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 8  per  cent 

Potash 5  per  cent 


Yield  and  value 

Sorghum  is  frequently  allowed  to  grow  to  a 
height  of  five  to  six  feet,  and  then  cut  and  permitted 
to  make  a  second  crop.  By  this  method,  the  largest 
yields  of  succulent  forage  are  obtained,  ranging 
from  eight  to  thirty  tons  per  acre,  although  the 
latter  figures  are  exceptional.  An  average  of  ten 
tons  may  be  regarded  as  good,  and  this  should 
be  secured  under  medium  conditions  of  soil  and 
in  usual  seasons. 

Sorghum  is  a  sugar- producing  plant.  It  is  very 
palatable,  and  is  readily  eaten  by  all  farm  stock. 
In  their  immature  state,  however,  the  plants  do 
not  contain  a  high  content  of  dry  matter,  being 
similar  in  this  respect  to  millet,  although  they  are 
more  palatable  when  mature. 

The  quantity  fed  may  range  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  pounds  per  day,  in  two  feeds.  The  sugar  forms 
very  rapidly  after  the  heads  begin  to  appear,  and 
this  formation  of  sugar,  while  accompanied  by  a 
considerable  increase  in  crude  fiber  as  the  plants 


126  FORAGE    CROPS 

approach  maturity,  makes  the  forage  sweet  and 
encourages  the  animals  to  consume  the  coarser 
materials  more  readily  than  is  the  case  with  the 
millets  or  kafir  corn,  or  even  maize  (except  the 
sweet  varieties) . 

Sorghum  is  not  well  suited  for  hay,  although  it 
can  be  used  for  the  purpose  if  cut  early.  It  can 
be  used  for  silage  with  advantage.  It  can  also 
be  harvested  and  allowed  to  dry,  and  the  seed 
threshed;  the  dry  stalks  are  then  practically  as 
useful  as  corn-stalks,  and  the  seed  can  be  ground 
into  a  feed  which  is  similar  to  corn -meal  in  its 
composition  and  feeding  value. 

Composition  and  Yield  of  Nutrients  of  Sorghum  Forage 

Early  Orange  Early  Amber  One  ton    -A°  Jl-Wefd 

sugar-cane  sugar-cane  contains        furnishes 

Per  cent  Per  cent  Lbs.                Lbs. 

Water 83.19  85.19             

Dry  matter 16.81  14.81  336.2          3362.0 

Ether  extract 0.57  0.51  11.4             114.0 

Fiber      5.51  3.96  110.2           1102.0 

Protein 1.70  1.36  34  0            340.0 

Ash 1.49  1.20  29.8            298.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract   .    .      7.54  7.78  150.8           1508.0 


SORGHUM   IN   DRY   REGIONS 

Sweet  sorghum  is  well  adapted  to  the  special 
climatic  conditions  of  the  semi -arid  regions, 
although  it  is  generally  used  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  states  for  gieen  forage.    The  l^emainder 


SORGHUM   Ii\    DRY   REGIONS 


127 


of  this  chapter  is  drawn  largely  from  Kansas  State 
Board  of  Agriculture  Report  for  1900.  Figs.  28 
and  29  are  Kansan. 

Varieties  for  Kansas 

Of  the  large  number  of  varieties,  those  found 
to   be   most   desirable  in  the  West  are:    Folger, 


Fig.  29.    Field  of  Orange  sorghum  in  Kansas. 

early;  Coleman,  medium;  Collier,  late.  The  Early 
Amber  and  Early  Orange  are  very  valuable  for 
the  East.  The  main  points  to  consider  in  choosing 
varieties  are  (1)  time  of  maturity,  (2)  proportion 
of  foliage  to  stem,  (3)  sweetness, 


SWEET   SORGHUM  129 

Preparation  of  land 

There  is  a  prevailing  opinion  with  farmers  that 
sorghum  does  not  require  the  care  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  soil  and  its  cultivation  that  is  demanded 
for  corn.  This  may  be  true  in  part,  but  the  plant 
responds  readily  and  profitably  to  good  treatment, 
and  it  usually  pays  well  thoroughly  to  prepare  the 
soil  before  planting.  This  good  preparation  not 
only  destroys  weed  seeds,  but  increases  the  water- 
storage  capacity  of  the  soil,  insures  quick  germi- 
nation and  rapid  early  growth. 

Seeding  in  Kansas 

Sorghum  may  be  seeded  any  time  that  is  suit- 
able for  seeding  corn;  if  planted  from  the  first  to 
the  twentieth  of  May,  it  will  ordinarily  catch 
enough  of  the  spring  rains  to  secure  a  fine  growth 
before  the  hot  and  usually  dry  weather  of  the 
western  states  begins. 

When  grown  for  the  mature  plant,  it  should  be 
planted  in  rows,  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the 
seed  distributed  evenly  in  the  row,  at  the  rate  of 
one  peck  to  one-half  bushel  per  acre.  After  plant- 
ing, the  land  should  be  harrowed  to  keep  the  sur- 
face loose,  and  as  soon  as  the  plant  is  well  started, 
the  ground  should  be  frequently  cultivated  until 
the    plant   is   thoroughly   established.    While  the 


130  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

young  plant  is  slower  than  corn  to  start,  and  thus 
difficult  to  keep  clean,  especially  in  moist  warm 
weather,  it  grows  quite  as  rapidly,  if  not  more  so, 
when  well  established,  and  later  cultivation  is  not 
so  important. 

Sorghum  is  usually  grown  for  the  making  of 
hay,  and  therefore  a  much  thicker  stand  is  wanted 
and  broadcast  seeding  is  practiced.  The  best 
method  of  seeding  is  to  use  a  press  drill,  sowing 
from  one  and  one-half  to  two  bushels  per  acre, 
sufficient  to  have  the  stand  thick,  like  wheat  or 
rye,  if  the  best  hay  is  to  be  obtained. 

Harvesting  and  curing  sorghum 

The  crop  may  be  cut  for  forage  when  two  or 
three  feet  high,  in  which  case  it  is  possible  to  get 
a  second  crop  quite  as  large  as  the  first.  For  hay, 
however,  it  is  better  to  let  the  plant  reach  a  more 
mature  stage,  so  the  seeds  begin  to  harden  and 
the  plants  to  turn  yellow.  At  this  stage,  it  will 
make  more  and  better  feed  than  if  cut  earlier  or 
later.  If  the  stalks  are  not  more  than  six  feet  tall, 
the  method  commonly  used  for  hay  is  to  cut  with 
a  mower,  allow  it  to  wilt,  and  then,  with  self- 
dumping  rakes,  carry  enough  together  to  make 
small  stacks  of  800  to  1,200  pounds.  By  this 
method,  experienced  growers  find  that  the  least 
labor  is  involved ,  and  that  the  product  keeps  green 


SWEET   SOBGEUM  131 

and  sweet.  The  time  of  cutting  should  be  the  same 
if  planted  thinner,  except  that  it  should  be  cut  and 
put  in  shocks,  as  in  the  curing  of  corn -fodder. 

For  many  sections,  sorghum  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  crops  of  the  farm;  it  is  easily  grown,  resists 
drought,  and  makes  a  large  quantity  of  forage  that 
is  relished  by  all  farm  animals.  In  the  South  it  is 
grown  largely  for  making  syrup.  It  was  formerly 
used  somewhat  for  this  purpose,  even  as  far  north 
as  Michigan,  before  the  days  of  cheap  sugar. 

As  a  special  crop,  sorghum  cannot  be  recom- 
mended too  highly.  When  properly  grown  it 
produces  from  four  to  six  tons  of  dry  feed 
per  acre. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

MAIZE    OB   INDIAN    CORN 

There  is  no  one  crop  that  is  equal  to  corn  for 
forage  purposes.  If  it  could  be  so  grown  as  to 
supply  green  forage  from  May  1  to  November  1, 
there  would  be  no  good  reason  for  the  introduction 
in  soiling  systems  of  any  other  plant  of  the  same 
group.  The  reasons  for  this  broad  statement  are, 
(1)  that  corn  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils, 
and  thus  can  be  successfully  grown  for  forage 
practically  everywhere  in  the  United  States;  (2) 
it  makes  the  largest  yield  of  digestible  dry  matter 
per  acre,  other  things  being  equal,  of  any  crop 
that  is  now  grown;  (3)  in  its  immature  state  it  is 
very  palatable  and  is  eaten  practically  clean  by 
all  classes  of  farm  stock  up  to  the  time  that 
the  grain  begins  to  harden;  (4)  it  is  one  of  the 
least  expensive  crops  to  grow,  largely  because  of 
the  cheapness  of  seed;  (5)  it  can  be  completely 
utilized,  either  as  a  grain  crop  or  winter  forage 
crop,  if  not  needed  as  green  forage  to  supple- 
ment pastures,  or  if  the  yields  are  larger  than 
needed  for  soiling;  (6)  it  is  the  only  wholly 
satisfactory  silage  crop;  (7)  it  is  a  tilled  crop, 
and  its  use  may  improve  the  land. 

(132) 


MAIZE   FOR   SOILING  133 

CORN   FOR   GREEN   FORAGE   OR   SOILING 

The  choice  of  variety  and  method  of  growing 
should    be  modified    to  meet  the   special  require- 
ments of  soiling.    It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  purpose  in  the  growing  of  soiling  crops  is  not 
nutriment  alone,  but  rather  a  combination  of  suc- 
culence, palatability  and  nutrients.  Those  varieties 
that  make  most  rapid    growth  and   develop  early 
are,   all    things    considered,   more    desirable   than 
those  that  give  a  larger  proportion  of  stalk  and 
ear  to  leaf,  because  the  shorter  period  of  growth 
enables  the  gathering  of  two  crops  of  green  forage 
in  one  season  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey.    The 
Rural    Thoroughbred    White    Flint   represents    a 
type  that  gives  excellent  satisfaction  in  the  Middle 
States,  as  it  possesses  in  marked  degree  the  char- 
acteristics already  recommended.    The   branching 
habit  is  also  well  developed ;  from  three  to  four 
stalks  will  sucker  from  the  main  stem,  thus  gradu- 
ally thickening  and  maintaining  the  succulent  char- 
acter of  the  forage  for  a  longer  period  than  those 
not  possessing  this  habit.     In  New  Jersey  and 
points  south,  this  variety,  if  planted   by  May  1, 
will  be  ready  for  harvesting  by  the  middle  of  July; 
and  if  another  crop  is  planted  at  this  time,  it  will 
reach  a  good  stage  of  development  previous  to  kill- 
ing frosts  that  occur  as  early  as  the  first  week  in 
October.   Notwithstanding  the  possibility  of  secur- 


134  FORAGE   CROPS 

ing  two  crops,  the  yields  of  each  are  often  as  large 
as  can  be  obtained  from  the  larger -growing  varie- 
ties. 

Tli ere  are  many  other  good  varieties  that  possess 
in  varying  degrees  the  characteristics  mentioned 
for  this  one.  As  a  rule,  the  flint  varieties  are 
superior  to  the  dent  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
country.  The  smaller,  quicker- growing  varieties 
of  the  dent  sorts  are  also  satisfactory,  although 
requiring  much  thicker  seeding  and  a  longer  period 
of  growth. 

Preparation  of  land 

The  yield  of  the  crop  depends  to  a  very  consid- 
erable extent  on  conditions  that  are  favorable  for 
complete  germination  and  very  early  growth.  The 
importance  of  this  point  cannot  be  emphasized  too 
strongly.  Naturally,  the  preparation  of  the  land 
and  its  treatment  will  depend  somewhat  on  its 
condition  and  character.  In  the  first  place,  if 
either  clover  or  grass  sod  is  used,  it  is  generally 
good  practice  not  to  plow  too  deep,  which  is 
likely  to  turn  up  parts  of  the  soil  not  thoroughly 
mixed  with  vegetable  matter,  and  not  in  good 
physical  condition.  This  admixture  of  subsoil  has 
an  unfavorable  effect  on  quick  and  satisfactory 
germination.  Therefore,  relatively  shallow  plow- 
ing,—  five  to  six  inches, — is  preferable. 

Plowing  should  be  performed  as  early  as  it  is 


s^ 


136  FORAGE   CHOPS 

possible  to  get  on  the  land,  that  the  soil  may  be 
suitably  compacted  before  the  drying  winds  of 
spring  absorb  the  moisture.  Following  the  plow- 
ing, the  tillage  should  be  deep  and  thorough,  both 
to  warm  the  soil  and  to  make  the  surface  as  fine 
as  possible.  When  soils  are  loose  and  porous,  the 
necessity  for  deep  and  repeated  tillings  are  not  so 
great  as  when  they  are  heavy  and  compact.  If 
the  soil  is  not  plowed  until  immediately  preceding 
planting,  it  is  likely  to  be  cold,  preventing  quick 
germination;  and  should  dry  weather  follow,  the 
surface  rapidly  dries  out  and  the  plants  will  not 
absorb  sufficient  moisture  from  the  lower  layers  to 
cause  rapid  and  continuous  growth.  When  the 
crop  is  planted  on  land  that  has  not  had  a  cover- 
crop,  the  recommendations  may  be  modified  to 
some  extent;  a  little  deeper  plowing  may  be  made, 
and  less  tilling  is  required  to  get  it  into  first-class 
condition. 

Manures  and  fertilizers 

When  the  aim  is  to  secure  as  large  a  yield  of 
succulent  food  as  possible,  and  of  superior  quality, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  plants  have  an 
abundant  supply  of  plant-food  throughout  the 
entire  season.  Therefore,  even  on  good  soils,  the 
fertilization  should  be  liberal.  Manure  may  be 
placed  on  the  surface  in  the  fall,  in  which  case  it 
serves  as  a  mulch  during  winter,  absorbing  mois- 


MAIZE  FOB   SOILING  137 

ture,  preventing  washing  and  ensuring  a  complete 
distribution  in  the  surface  layers  of  the  soluble 
plant-food;  or  it  may  be  applied  after  plowing 
in  spring,  providing  it  is  fine  and  thoroughly 
incorporated  in  the  surface  soil.  These  methods 
will  ensure  the  largest  return  of  the  constituents  in 
the  crop,  and  they  are  particularly  desirable  when 
manures  are  used  that  contain  but  little  litter. 
When  manure  is  used,  ten  tons  per  acre  applied 
broadcast  will  afford  abundance  of  organic  ma- 
terial, containing  sufficient  nitrogen  in  available 
forms  to  supply  the  early  needs  of  the  plant. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  no 
amount  of  manure  or  fertilizer  can  be  substituted 
for  early  and  thorough  tillage,  as  tillage  saves 
moisture.  This  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance, for  without  moisture  the  plant -food  cannot 
be  dissolved  and  circulated  through  the  soil.  There- 
fore, whatever  the  method  of  manuring,  the  soil 
after  seeding  should  be  tilled,  preferably  shallow 
and  as  frequently  as  possible,  until  the  plants  are 
too  large  to  permit  further  work.  The  fact  that 
the  plant  does  not  make  its  most  rapid  growth  in 
any  case  until  warm  weather  begins,  makes  the 
necessity  for  early  and  large  applications  of 
quickly  available  nitrogen  not  so  great  as  in  the 
case  of  such  crops  as  rye  or  wheat,  or  even  oats, 
that  make  their  most  rapid  growth  much  earlier  in 
the  season.    With  corn,  the  conditions  are  gener- 


138  FORAGE  CROPS 

ally  favorable  soon  after  planting  for  the  change 
of  organic  nitrogen  into  available  forms. 

The  corn  plant,  however,  requires  a  liberal 
supply  of  the  mineral  constituents ;  and  while  the 
application  of  manure  will  carry  relatively  large 
quantities  of  these,  it  is  obvious  that  they  cannot 
be  so  completely  distributed  as  in  more  soluble 
forms,  nor,  unless  the  manure  is  placed  in  the 
row,  can  they  be  concentrated  in  such  a  way  as  to 
permit  the  plant  to  supply  its  needs  easily  and 
rapidly.  Therefore,  in  addition  to  manures,  a  fer- 
tilizer rich  in  minerals  is  generally  desirable.  A 
fertilizer  carrying  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  12  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  10  of  potash  (made  by  mixing 
250  lbs.  ground  bone,  500  lbs.  acid  phosphate,  250 
lbs.  muriate  of  potash),  applied  at  the  rate  of 
400  pounds  per  acre,  will  meet  the  requirements 
for  minerals  even  under  unfavorable  conditions. 
This  fertilizing,  while  seemingly  heavy,  is  not 
more  than  should  be  applied,  because  the  object  is 
to  stimulate  as  far  as  possible  a  continuous  and 
rapid  growth. 

The  above  remarks  are  made,  of  course,  with 
eastern  conditions  in  mind.  In  large  parts  of  the 
West,  these  heavy  applications  will  not  commend 
themselves  to  farmers  in  general ;  but  even  there 
the  question  of  fertilizing  is  coming  to  be  an 
important  one,  although  the  main  demand  may 
be  for  but  one  of   the  constituents.    In  the  long 


MAIZE  TOR   SOILING  139 

run,  the   question  of  applying  plant -food  is  not 
regional. 

Seeding  and  tillage 

Methods  of  seeding  vary  widely,  although  it  is 
recognized  in  all  cases  that  the  thickness  of  seed- 
ing should  be  proportioned  to  the  possible  available 
plant- food  in  the  soil.  On  soils  that  are  naturally 
rich  and  supplemented  with  the  fertility  constit- 
uents in  available  forms,  thicker  seeding  may  be 
made  than  when  conditions  are  not  so  good  in 
respect  to  food. 

A  good  method  of  seeding  corn  is  to  plant  in 
drills,  from  two  and  one -half  to  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  plants  from  eight  to  ten  inches  apart  in 
the  drill.  The  quantity  of  seed  necessary  to  plant 
thus  thickly,  will  range  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
quarts  per  acre,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  grain. 
\n  branching  varieties,  the  plants  will  be  as  thick 
as  it  is  desirable  to  have  them  with  the  lighter 
seeding.  Seedings  thicker  than  this,  either  in 
rows  or  broadcast,  as  is  frequently  practiced, 
are  likely  to  cause  the  crop  to  surfer  from  lack  of 
moisture,  if  short  droughts  occur,  even  under  very 
favorable  conditions  for  obtaining  plant-food.  The 
size  of  the  stalks  under  this  thick  seeding  will  be 
such  as  to  cause  the  forage  to  remain  succulent 
and  palatable  until  the  grain  begins  to  harden. 

As  already  "indicated,  when  large  yields  are  to 


140  FORAGE   CROPS 

be  secured,  great  care  should  be  observed  in  the 
conserving  of  the  moisture,  and  therefore  the 
cultivation  should  begin  about  as  soon  as  the  corn 
is  planted.  Shortly  after  planting,  the  surface 
should  be  stirred  frequently,  preferably  with  a  light 
harrow  or  weeder,  until  the  corn  is  well  started, 
when  shallow  tilling  should  begin  and  be  continued 
as  frequently  as  possible  during  the  early  period 
of  growth.  This  frequent  tilling  will  prevent  the 
undue  escape  of  moisture  into  the  atmosphere,  as 
well  as  assist  in  the  decomposition  and  nitrifica- 
tion of  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  and  manure. 
After  the  first  crop  is  removed,  a  second  one  may 
be  immediately  planted,  preferably  without  plowing 
but  with  a  deep  cultivation  with  a  cutaway  har- 
row. The  corn  stubs  will  interfere  to  some  extent, 
but  not  seriously.  The  reasons  for  cultivating, 
rather  than  plowing,  when  the  first  crop  is  removed 
(say  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  July),  are,  first, 
that  quite  as  good  tilth  can  be  secured,  and  second, 
if  the  land  is  plowed  at  this  season,  it  is  frequently 
impossible  to  get  the  surface  layers  so  thoroughly 
compacted  and  connected  with  the  lower  one  as  to 
permit  free  upward  movement  of  water  from  the 
lower  parts  of  the  soil.  It  is  essential,  particularly 
iu  this  second  crop,  that  the  germination  should 
be  quick  and  as  complete  as  possible,  and  the 
early  growth  very  rapid.  The  manures  and  ferti- 
lizers should  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as  for  the 


MAIZE   FOB    SOILING  141 

first  crop,  and  the  seeding  and  tilling  should  also 
be  the  same. 

Time  of  harvesting,  and  yields 

The  time  of  harvesting  maize  for  soiling  pur- 
poses may  begin  as  soon  as  the  plant  has  fully 
tasseled,  or  even  before,  depending  on  the  need 
for  succulent  forage.  The  largest  amount  of  actual 
food  or  digestible  nutrients  will  be  secured  if  the 
harvesting  is  delayed  until  the  ears  have  formed, 
and  then  continued  until  the  glazing  stage  is 
reached.  Therefore,  the  yields  will  vary  widely, 
inasmuch  as  the  proportion  of  dry  matter  in  the 
early-cut  forage  is  relatively  very  much  less,  and 
the  water  very  much  more  than  when  the  crop  is 
nearly  mature.  Records  obtained  at  some  of  the 
stations  show  that  under  normal  conditions  of  sea- 
son more  digestible  matter,  and  that  which  is  quite 
as  palatable,  may  be  secured  from  twelve  tons  of 
corn  cut  at  the  glazing  stage,  than  would  be 
secured  in  fifteen  tons  or  more  harvested  before  or 
about  the  time  the  plant  is  coming  in  tassel.  So 
the  yields  may  vary  by  the  common,  though  not 
proper,  standards  of  reckoning;  and  the  fact  that 
a  crop  will  yield  fifteen  or  even  twenty  tons  of 
forage,  as  is  frequently  stated,  is  no  indication 
that  such  crop  is  superior  in  content  and  value  of 
total  nutrients  to  one  that  yields  twelve  tons. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  prolong  the  feeding  of  the 


142  FORAGE   CROPS 

green  forage  until  the  ears  have  matured,  as  the 
tendency  of  the  animals  will  be  to  eat  the  ears  in 
preference  to  the  other  parts  of  the  forage,  and 
the  master  cows  will  appropriate  an  undue  pro- 
portion and  possibly  be  injured  by  an  excessive 
supply,  particularly  if  the  forage  is  distributed  in 
the  field.  For  soiling,  the  forage  should  preferably 
be  used  before  the  grain  has  hardened. 

Composition  and  value  of  crop 

Corn  in  its  best  stage  for  green  forage  contains, 
on  the  average,  and  for  all  varieties,  20  per  cent 
of  dry  matter.  This  dry  matter  is  much  richer  in 
carbohydrates  than  wheat  or  rye  forage.  There- 
fore, so  far  as  total  nutriment  is  concerned,  it  is 
much  superior  to  these  crops,  as  well  as  to  the 
millets,  sorghums  or  kafir  corn.  That  is  to  say,  a 
larger  proportion  of  feed  in  a  succulent  and 
digestible  form  is  contained  in  a  smaller  amount 
of  forage.  Usually  from  forty -five  to  fifty  pounds 
per  day  will  supply  the  needs  for  roughage,  as 
compared  with  fifty  to  seventy -five  pounds  of 
millet  or  either  saccharine  or  non- saccharine  sor- 
ghums. 

Corn  can  be  utilized  through  a  longer  period 
than  any  other  crop.  Therefore,  the  plantings 
should  be  made  at  different  times;  and  as  any 
one  seeding  can  be  used  for  a  period  of  fifteen  to 


SWEET  CORN  143 

twenty -five  days,  the  plantings  should  be  made 
two  or  three  weeks  apart.  Of  course,  a  similar 
succession  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the 
early- maturing  and  the  late -maturing  varieties, 
but  the  later  varieties  do  not  make  so  good  green 
forage  as  the  early  ones. 


Composition 

of    Thoroughbred   White  Flint 

Corn   1 

^Green) 

Per  cent 

One  ton 

contains 

Lbs. 

Average 

acre  yield 

furnishes 

Lbs. 

Fodder 

corn,  all 
varieties 
Per  cent 

One  ton 

contains 

Lbs. 

Average 

acre  yield 

furnishes 

Lbs. 

Water    .   .    . 

80.27 

.    .    . 

79.30 

Dry  matter  . 

19.73 

394.6 

3946.0 

20.70 

414.0 

414.0 

Ether  extract 

0.62 

12.4 

124.0 

0.50 

10.0 

100.0 

Fiber     .   .    . 

3.78 

75.6 

756.0 

5.00 

100.0 

1000.0 

Protein     .    . 

1.65 

33.0 

330.0 

1.80 

36.0 

360.0 

Ash    ...   . 

0.86 

17.2 

172.0 

1.20 

24.0 

240.0 

Nitrogen-free 

extract  .   . 

12.82 

256.4 

2564.0 

12.20 

244.0 

2440.0 

The  yield  of  the  Thoroughbred  White  Flint  has 
ranged,  at  the  New  Jersey  Station,  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen tons  per  acre,  with  an  average  of  about  ten 
tons,  containing  20  per  cent  of  dry  matter.  Two 
crops  of  ten  tons  each  would  yield  about  four  tons 
of  dry  matter  per  acre  of  a  highly  digestible  and 
very  satisfactory  forage. 

SWEET  CORN  FOR  GREEN  FORAGE 

Owing  to  the  very  palatable  nature  of  sweet 
corn,  it  is  frequently  recommended  for  green  for- 
age.   If  suitable  varieties  are  chosen  and  planted 


144  FORAGE   CROPS 

at  the  proper  time,  it  is  a  very  useful  crop,  al- 
though the  experience  of  careful  experimenters 
shows  that,  on  the  whole,  the  yield  of  feed  is 
relatively  very  much  less  than  from  the  regular 
field  varieties,  the  range  being  from  four  to  ten 
tons  per  acre,  with  an  average  of  about  six  tons. 
A  variety  of  sweet  corn  that  gives  a  satisfactory 
yield  is  rather  slower  in  development  than  other 
corn,  owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  seed  does 
not  germinate  quickly  nor  the  young  plants  grow 
vigorously  until  the  season  is  well  advanced.  Of 
the  suitable  varieties,  Stowell  Evergreen  is  one 
of  the  most  generally  satisfactory,  since  it  is  a 
large,  rank  grower,  with  abundant  foliage.  It 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  season  is  well 
advanced,  say  the  latter  part  of  May,  for  the  Cen- 
tral States,  and  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  well 
prepared,  as  pointed  out  for  other  kinds  of  maize. 
When  used  primarily  for  forage,  sweet  corn  may 
be  fertilized  or  manured,  as  indicated  for  the 
Thoroughbred  White  Flint,  and  cultivation  should 
be  practically  the  same. 

A  great  advantage  that  many  dairymen  find  in 
the  growing  of  sweet  corn  is  that  they  may  sell 
a  large  proportion  of  the  ears,  when  the  prices 
are  satisfactory,  and  still  have  a  very  good  for- 
age left,  as  the  stalk  remains  palatable  for  a  con- 
siderable time  after  the  ears  have  been  removed. 
There  is  no  question  as  to  the  superiority  of  the, 


SWEET   CORN  FOB   SOILING  145 

sweet  varieties  for  forage,  as  the  animals  certainly 
are  able  to  utilize  the  nutrients  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent; and  because  of  their  extreme  palatability, 
they  exert  a  very  favorable  effect  on  the  system, 
encouraging,  apparently,  a  larger  and  better  use  of 
the  accompanying  feeds,  as  an  increased  flow  of 
milk  usually  follows  when  sweet  corn  forage  is  sub- 
stituted for  field  varieties.  Because  of  the  greater 
palatability  of  the  sweet  varieties,  however,  ani- 
mals are  likely  to  overeat.  From  fifty  to  sixty 
pounds  per  head  per  day  should  be  the  limit  of 
use;  it  is  important  that  the  distribution  in  the 
feeding  lot  should  be  so  made  as  to  prevent  any  one 
animal  from  securing  a  larger  quantity  than  this. 

The  composition  of  sweet  corn  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  the  field  varieties,  although 
it  is  more  palatable  and  undoubtedly  more  com- 
pletely digested.    Following  are  analyses: 

Composition  of   Sweet  Corn 

Average 
Stowell's         Average  One  ton       acre  yield 

Evergreen        analyses  contains        furnishes 

Per  cent         Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 77.90  79.10  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 22.10  20.90  418.0  2508.0 

Ether  extract 0.60  0.50  10.0  60.0 

Fiber 4.50  4.40  88.0  528.0 

Protein 1.80  1.90  38.0  228.0 

Ash 1.20  1.30  26.0  156.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .  14.00  12.80  256.0  1536.0 

Comparison  of  the  average  yield  of  nutrients  in 
regular  field  varieties  and  in  sweet  varieties,  shows 


146  FORAGE    CHOPS 

the  great  superiority  of  the  former,  an  average 
yield  per  acre  of  field  varieties  furnishing: 

100  pounds  of  fat 
360  pounds  of  protein 
2,440  pounds  of  nitrogen-free  extract 

as  against: 

60  pounds  of  fat 
228  pounds  protein 
1,536  pounds  of  nitrogen-free  extract 

for  the  sweet  varieties,  or  a  gain  of  nearly  60  per 
cent  in  all  the  different  nutrients.  The  cost  of  the 
sweet  corn  forage  is  greater,  owing  to  the  much 
higher  price  of  seed. 


DRIED   CORN   FODDER 

An  advantage  that  corn  possesses,  and  which 
makes  it  superior  to  practically  every  other  plant, 
is  the  fact  that,  if  the  crop  is  not  required  in  its 
green  stage,  it  may  be  dried  and  used  for  fodder. 
While  it  contains  a  high  content  of  dry  matter,  it 
cures  readily,  and  for  certain  classes  of  feeding 
furnishes  roughage  that  is  unexcelled. 

Seeding  and  harvesting 

The  varieties  used  for  fodder  may  be  practically 
the  same  as  those  recommended  for  green  forage, 
although  the  seeding  may  be  slightly  thicker,  as 


DRIED    CORN  FODDER  \\1 

the  advantage  of  earing  is  not  so  important.  In 
fact,  a  better  quality  of  fodder  will  be  secured 
when  a  minimum  number  of  matured  ears  are 
formed. 

The  time  of  cutting  will  depend  somewhat  on 
the  character  of  growth,  but  the  largest  amount  of 
dry  matter  will  be  obtained  when  the  maize  plant 
is  practically  mature,  and  if  the  seeding  has  been 
thick  enough  the  curing  at  this  stage  can  be 
accomplished  readily.  When  there  is  danger  of 
shortage  of  other  winter  roughage,  corn  is  often 
planted  late  to  supplement  the  regular  supplies,  in 
which  case  the  crop  is  not  always  sufficiently 
mature  before  it  is  time  to  harvest.  This  will 
result  in  giving  a  crop  that  is  very  rich  in  diges- 
tible dry  matter,  but  that  is  difficult  to  cure. 
However,  if  it  is  placed  in  small  shocks,  it  will 
soon  dry  out;  it  should  be  removed  from  small 
shocks  to  large  stacks  or  to  the  barn  before  the 
heavy  storms  of  winter  begin. 

Composition  and  value  of  dry  com  fodder 

The  composition  of  well -cured  corn  fodder  is 
such  as  to  make  it  a  most  excellent  and  nutritious 
food,  and  it  is  readily  eaten  by  all  farm  stock, 
especially  if  cut  fine.  The  amount  of  dry  matter  in 
field- cured  fodder  is  about  75  per  cent,  and  it 
is  nearly  as  rich  in  protein  as  timothy  hay,  and  con- 


148  FORAGE    CROPS 

tains  very  much  less  crude  fiber.  A  good  crop  of 
corn  should  yield  about  three  tons  per  acre. 
A  mistaken  idea  is  that  the  thicker  the  corn  is 
seeded,  the  larger  will  be  the  yield  of  food  per 
acre,  and  in  many  instances  the  corn  is  sown 
broadcast  or  planted  exceedingly  thick  in  the  row 
with  this  notion  in  mind.  While  the  forage  will  be 
a  little  more  digestible  and  a  little  richer  in  pro- 
tein under  this  treatment,  the  yield  of  total 
nutrients  per  acre  is  usually  very  much  less  than 
if  planted  in  the  ordinary  way  and  tilled,  since  the 
thick- seeded  crop  will  be  likely  to  suffer  from  lack 
of  moisture,  and  it  is  much  more  exhaustive  per 
unit  of  dry  matter  on  the  fertilizer  constituents  of 
the  land.  It  is  not  a  desirable  practice  to  broad- 
cast corn  unless  for  hog  pasture,  or  as  catch- crop, 
and  even  then  the  advantages  are  not  always 
apparent. 

Sweet  corn  dry  fodder 

As  already  pointed  out,  sweet  corn  is  an  excel- 
lent source  of  nutrients,  because  it  does  not  grow 
quite  so  coarse  as  the  ordinary  field  varieties,  and 
because  it  is  very  palatable  and  contains  a  highly 
digestible  form  of  carbohydrates.  As  in  the  case 
of  other  fodders,  if  grown  primarily  for  dried 
fodder,  the  seeding  should  be  relatively  thick,  so 
as  not  to  permit  too  heavy  earing,  although  the 
presence  of  ears  is  not  so  undesirable  as  in  field 


STOVER  149 

corn.  Sweet  corn  fodder  is  more  likely  to  mold 
than  field  corn,  and  greater  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  harvesting;  it  should  be  thoroughly 
cured  in  the  field,  and  then  stored  in  a  dry  place. 
If  entirely  freed  from  outside  moisture,  and 
thoroughly  air- dried,  it  may  be  packed  tightly 
in  the  barn  without  danger  of  injury.  The  neces- 
sity for  cutting  it  fine,  when  fed,  is  not  so  great 
as  for  other  corn,  since  animals  will  eat  it  readily 
without  cutting,  due  to  the  softer  stalk  and  its 
palatability. 

CORN-STALKS   OR   STOVER 

Stover  is  the  stalks  remaining  after  a  corn  crop 
has  been  harvested  of  its  ears,  the  crop  having 
been  grown  for  the  grain.  There  is  great  waste  of 
stover  throughout  a  large  area  of  the  country;  it 
is  certain  that  this  waste  would  be  saved  if  its 
food -values  were  better  understood.  The  coarse 
stover  has  a  high  feeding- value,  which  will  justify 
much  greater  care  in  its  handling  and  storage. 
The  feeding- value  of  a  ton  of  stalks  is  more  than 
half  the  value  of  a  ton  of  timothy  hay  that  is  har- 
vested in  its  best  condition. 

Methods  ot  curing  and  handling  corn- stalks 

Methods  of  handling  stover  differ  widely  in 
different  sections  of  the  country.    In  the  eastern 


150  FORAGE    CROPS 

and  northeastern  states,  the  corn  is  usually  cut 
and  shocked,  and  when  the  ears  are  dry  enough 
to  crib,  the  corn  is  husked  and  the  stalks  are  re- 
shocked  in  the  field  until  cured,  and  then  either 
carted  to  large  stacks  or  stored  in  the  barn.  This 
is  an  economical  method  of  curing  and  saving  the 
crop.  In  the  South  and  parts  of  the  West  the 
practice  is  merely  to  "top"  the  stalk,  and  the 
leaves  and  stalk  below  the  ear,  with  the  husks,  re- 
main standing  in  the  field.  This  practice  results 
in  a  large  waste  of  valuable  material.  In  many  of 
the  western  states,  only  the  ears  are  removed  from 
the  standing  corn  and  the  stalks  are  not  harvested; 
the  only  value  gained  from  the  stover  is  that  which 
may  be  secured  by  the  animals  following  the  busk- 
ers, and  even  then  probably  not  one -third  of  the 
food  is  utilized. 

Another  source  of  loss  of  fodder,  even  though 
the  corn  is  husked  and  the  stalks  shocked,  occurs 
when  the  shocks  are  left  in  the  field  until  they  are 
needed  for  food.  By  this  method  great  losses 
occur,  due  to  the  mechanical  removal  of  the  leaves 
by  weather,  to  changes  in  chemical  composition, 
and  to  the  removal  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
best  of  the  material  by  wind-  and  rain-storms; 
besides,  the  rain  and  snow  soak  the  outer  parts  of 
the  shocks,  and  these  parts  become  frozen,  not 
only  rendering  them  unpalatable  but  making  it  im- 
possible to  remove  the  entire  product  to  the  barn. 


152  FORAGE   CROPS 

Methods  of  using;   yield 

The  best  method  of  using  stover  is  to  cut  it  fine, 
or  to  shred  it  and  feed  the  animals  liberally,  allow- 
ing the  unpalatable  parts  to  be  used  as  bedding. 
In  this  way  the  best  of  the  feed  is  utilized  and  the 
manures  are  saved  and  improved. 

The  yield  of  stover  will  naturally  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  and  the  character  of  the  crop. 
The  ratio  between  ears  and  stover  is  not  uniform, 
but  with  a  yield  of  100  bushels  of  ears  there  is 
usually  about  two  tons  of  stover,  which  contains 
about  60  per  cent  of  dry  matter  or  feed  per  acre, 
equivalent  in  value  practically  to  a  ton  of  timothy 
hay. 


CHAPTER  IX 

CORN  FOB    SILAGE 

The  prime  means  of  utilizing  the  green  corn 
crop  is  in  the  form  of  silage,  particularly  in  dairy 
districts.  By  this  use  the  largest  amount  of  diges- 
tible feed  may  be  obtained  per  acre,  and  in  a  suc- 
culent and  highly  palatable  form.  Since  the  use  of 
the  silo  became  an  important  question  there  has 
been  very  great  improvement  in  the  growing  of 
corn  for  silage  and  in  its  storage.  In  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  silo  it  was  recommended  that  corn  of 
the  larger  varieties  be  planted  very  thickly,  and  be 
stored  before  it  had  nearly  reached  a  stage  of 
maturity.  The  consequence  was,  that,  while  large 
crop  yields  were  secured,  the  high  content  of  water 
and  the  consequently  low  content  of  dry  matter 
were  detrimental  both  in  increasing  the  cost  of 
handling  and  the  difficulties  of  its  preservation; 
the  feed  value  was  not  increased,  and  wastes  from 
decay  in  the  silo  were  very  serious.  Investigations 
on  the  growing  of  corn  and  ensiling  it  have 
shown  that  the  general  principles  involved  in  the 
growing  of  forage,  as  already  pointed  out,  are 
quite  as  applicable  in  the  growing  of  corn  for 
silage  as  for  soiling  or  for  fodder. 

(153) 


154  FORAGE    CROPS 

Varieties  of  corn  for  silage 

For  the  eastern,  central  west  and  southern 
states,  the  larger-growing  varieties,  as  the  South- 
ern White,  Horse  Tooth,  Mastodon,  or  those  gen- 
erally recommended  by  seedsmen,  are  preferable, 
giving  a  larger  yield  of  actual  dry  matter  per  acre 
than  the  smaller  -  growing  varieties,  if  only  they 
mature  sufficiently  in  average  seasons  before  frost. 
Farther  north,  the  flints,  as  Thoroughbred  White, 
or  the  ordinary  yellow  varieties,  and  a  number  of 
the  quick  -  growing  dent  varieties,  are  recom- 
mended, because  the  crop  can  be  more  completely 
matured  before  danger  of  frost. 

Preparation  of  land,  and  seeding 

As  in  the  case  of  other  forage  crops,  the  prepa- 
ration of  soil  is  very  important.  Early  plowing, 
and  a  deep  and  thorough  preparation  of  land  are 
important  in  securing  a  quick  and  complete  germi- 
nation and  rapid  early  growth.  Manuring  should 
be  liberal  and  supplemented  by  fertilizers.  While 
all  this  is  expensive  when  large  areas  are  grown, 
nevertheless  it  is  a  paying  procedure  because  of 
the  very  much  larger  quantity  of  feed  material 
that  may  be  grown  per  acre.  It  costs  no  more, 
for  example,  to  buy  land,  to  furnish  seed,  to  plow, 
and  to  make  the  ordinary  cultivations  for  a  crop 


MANURES   FOR    SILAGE   CORX  155 

of  twelve  tons  than  for  a  crop  of  eight  tons; 
proper  manuring  will  frequently  make  this  differ- 
ence in  yield,  other  things  being  equal.  It  is  rec- 
ommended that  manure  be  applied  either  in  the 
fall  or  winter  on  sod,  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten 
tons  per  acre,  or  in  spring  after  the  land  is  plowed 
and  previous  to  planting.  There  is  no  crop  that 
will  utilize  to  such  good  advantage  the  coarse  ma- 
nures as  corn;  it  is  a  great  forager,  and  at  the 
season  of  its  greatest  demands,  when  it  makes  its 
most  rapid  growth,  the  coarser  organic  manures 
are  more  readily  changed  and  converted  into  active 
substances  than  would  be  the  case  with  such  crops 
as  wheat  or  grass,  that  mature  early  and  require 
a  large  proportion  of  their  food  before  changes 
in  the  organic  compounds  can  take  place  in  the 
soil . 

It  is  essential,  also,  in  order  that  the  nitrogenous 
material  of  the  manure  may  be  completely  utilized, 
that  abundance  of  minerals  shall  be  at  the  disposal 
of  the  plant.  Therefore,  a  liberal  fertilization  with 
available  forms  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  is 
also  recommended.  Usually,  an  application  of 
300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  or  its  equivalent 
of  phosphoric  acid  from  ground  bone,  when  there 
is  an  abundance  of  organic  matter,  and  100  pounds 
of  muriate  of  potash,  broadcasted,  will  very 
materially  increase  the  yield. 

An  old  practice,  which  has  many  points  in  its 


156  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

favor,  is  the  dropping  of  fine  manure  in  the  hill  at 
time  of  planting.  The  advantage  of  this  method 
is,  that  the  organic  substances  will  ferment  quickly 
and  warm  the  soil,  and  thus  encourage  a  quick 
germination ;  and  a  more  rapid  early  growth  is  to 
be  obtained,  as  the  plant  makes  a  quick  start,  gets 
away  from  insects  and  makes  possible  an  earlier 
cultivation  of  the  land. 

Tillage 

The  methods  of  cultivation  have  been  greatly 
improved  in  recent  years,  owing  to  a  more  careful 
study  of  the  nature  and  the  composition  of  the 
plant.  While  the  old  notion  that  cultivation  pre- 
vious to  planting  is  the  best,  is  true  to  some 
extent,  tillage  has  for  one  of  its  primary  purposes 
the  destruction  of  weeds  in  addition  to  the  conser- 
vation of  moisture,  and  this  is  accomplished  by 
frequent  and  deep  tilling  subsequent  to  planting 
as  well  as  previous  to  it.  Immediately  after  the 
crop  is  planted,  the  surface  should  be  stirred  to 
destroy  the  young  weeds  in  the  rows,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  rapid  escape  of  moisture.  This  can  be 
accomplished  by  harrow  or  weeder.  As  soon  as 
the  corn  is  three  or  four  inches  high,  the  ordinary 
cultivator  should  be  run  through  the  row,  the  first 
one  or  two  cultivatings  being  three  or  four  inches 
deep,  then  gradually  shallower,  as  the  plant  grows, 


SEEDING    OF    SILAGE    CORN  157 

to  avoid  cutting  the  roots,  which  soon  ramify  in 
every  direction  and  fill  the  whole  surface  soil. 
These  feeding  roots  should  not  be  disturbed. 


Seeding 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  sow  will  depend  to 
some  extent  on  the  variety  and  the  character  of 
soil.  On  good  lands,  the  large-growing  varieties 
will  probably  give  the  largest  yield  if  planted  in 
rows  from  two  and  one -half  to  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  plants  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
This  will  require  about  fourteen  to  twent}^  quarts 
of  seed  per  acre,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
grain.  Seedings  as  thick  as  this  will  permit  of  a 
very  considerable  setting  of  ears,  although  not  so 
large  a  proportion  as  to  make  the  silage  too  rich 
in  digestible  carbohydrates. 

Time  of  cutting,  and  yield 

The  best  time  of  cutting  is  when  the  ears  are 
beginning  to  harden,  and  while  the  lower  leaves 
are  still  green.  Of  course,  the  season  will  influence 
this  point  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  dry  seasons, 
the  lower  leaves  will  become  dry  before  the  ears 
have  reached  the  proper  stage  of  development, 
although  there  will  be  appropriation  of  food  by 
the  plant  so  long  as   any  green  leaves  remain; 


158  FOE  AGE    CROPS 

therefore,  the  stage  of  maturity  of  the  ear  is  the 
best  guide  as  to  time  of  cutting. 

When  cut  at  this  stage,  a  good  yield  will  reach 
twelve  tons  per  acre.  This  does  not  seem  large, 
yet  the  crop  will  carry  about  25  to  28  per  cent  dry 
matter,  or  an  equivalent  of  over  6,000  pounds  of* 
actual  dry  substance  per  acre,  which  is  greater 
than  can  be  produced  by  any  other  cereal  crop. 
When  much  larger  yields  of  dry  matter  than  this 
are  reported,  the  probabilities  are  that  it  is  pro- 
duced on  a  smaller  area  specially  treated,  or  in  an 
exceptional  season,  or  under  unusual  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate.  The  reported  average  yields  of 
twenty,  twenty- five  and  thirty  tons  per  acre,  which 
are  often  noted,  are  evidently  based  on  forage 
containing  very  much  less  dry  matter.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  it  is  a  question  not  of  tonnage  of 
silage  corn,  but  of  dry  substance  that  is  involved, 
the  grower  should  not  base  his  expectations  of 
feed  production  on  statements  of  extraordinary 
yields,  as  he  will  surely  be  disappointed. 

If  a  crop  has  become  too  dry  to  go  into  the  silo 
in  the  best  condition,  the  wetting  of  it  may  help 
somewhat  to  preserve  the  silage,  but  it  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  water  cannot  take  the  place  of 
the  natural  juices  and  the  activity  of  living  cells. 
If  leaves  and  stalks  have  become  dry,  the  cells 
have  become  filled  with  air  and  the  adding  of 
water  can  only  partly  displace  it.    The  chief  help 


ENSILING    CORN  159 

of  water  is  in  softening  the  tissues,  and  in  aiding 
it  to  pack  more  closely.  This  method  is  often  used, 
however,  and,  if  the  conditions  in  other  respects 
are  favorable,  good  silage  results. 

Frosts  often  come  earlier  than  usual,  and  the 
corn  is  frozen  before  it  can  be  ensiled.  When  this 
happens,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  corn  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible thereafter,  and  before  the  leaves  are  entirely 
dry,  cutting  in  rather  large  heaps,  so  that  it  will 
not  dry  out  too  rapidly  in  the  field.  By  care  in 
these  respects,  frozen  corn  can  be  fully  utilized 
for  silage. 

Storage  in  the  silo 

In    the    ensiling   of   corn,    great   progress   has 
been  made,  chiefly  in  the  form  and  construction  of 
the  silo.    It   has  been  demonstrated  that  the  one 
crucial  point  in  the  saving  of  corn  in  a  silo,  is  that 
the  product  shall  be  put  in  a  building  or  receptacle 
that  is  practically  air-tight.    A  round  structure  is 
more  easily  made  tight  and  it  presents  the  least 
friction  against  proper  settling  and    packing.    It 
may   be   made   of  staves,  or  frame,  or   brick,  or 
stone,  or  of  any  material  that  will  accomplish  the 
purpose,  namely,  the  prevention  of  the  access  of 
air.    Square  silos  cannot  be  so  tightly  constructed, 
and  the  penetration  of  air  when  the  silo  is  open  is 
greater.     It  is   impossible   to  pack  closely   in  the 
corners. 


160  FORAGE    CROPS 

While  the  various  styles  of  silos  here  mentioned 
may  all  be  good,  there  are  several  objections  to 
stave  silos  that  are  intended  to  be  permanent 
buildings  out-of-doors.  The  staves  are  liable  to 
shrink  and  the  hoops  to  loosen  when  the  silo  is 
empty.  In  many  instances,  they  are  blown  down 
in  high  winds,  and  even  if  not  blown  down  they 
are  racked  and  get  out  of  plumb.  It  is  also  diffi- 
cult securely  to  anchor  a  permanent  roof,  and  to 
connect  permanently  the  staves  with  the  founda- 
tion. It  does  not  pay,  in  the  long  run,  to  make 
cheap  staves  silos.  An  all -wood  frame  round  silo 
is  a  type  that  has  given  excellent  satisfaction, 
especially  when  care  has  been  given  to  securing  a 
good  lining,  which  can  be  accomplished  only  when 
it  has  a  sufficient  diameter  to  permit  of  "springing" 
the  lining  boards  in  place,  rather  than  to  have  the 
lining  perpendicular.  There  should  be  at  least 
three  layers  of  the  wooden  lining,  with  paper 
between,  the  first  nailed  on  the  studs,  then  a 
lining  of  tough  building-paper;  the  second  layer 
nailed  so  as  to  break  joints,  and  another  lining  of 
paper;  and  the  third  nailed,  breaking  joints  again. 
To  prevent  the  decay  of  the  inside  lining,  it  should 
preferably  be  treated  with  a  mixture  of  gasolene 
and  coal  tar,  rather  than  paint.  This  preserves 
the  wood,  to  some  extent  prevents  the  entrance  of 
moisture,  and  is  not  brushed  off  by  the  pressure 
of  the  silage  as  paint  is  likely  to  be, 


FILLING    THE   SILO  161 

As  to  cutting  and  filling,  there  has  also  been 
considerable  gain  in  our  knowledge  and  practice. 
It  is  now  thought  that  the  finer  the  corn  is  cut  or 
shredded,  the  better,  primarily  because  there  is 
more  even  distribution  of  the  parts  of  the  ears  and 
stalks,  and  because  the  finer  the  material  is  cut  the 
more  readily  and  evenly  will  the  settling  take 
place,  thus  again  preventing  the  ready  access  of 
air.  It  has  been  demonstrated,  also,  that  the  neces- 
sity of  very  rapid  filling  of  the  silo,  and  the  sub- 
sequent pressure,  are  not  such  important  consid- 
erations as  was  formerly  supposed. 

Corn  may  be  ensiled  at  the  convenience  of 
the  farmer,  providing  the  fermentation  does  not 
proceed  so  far  as  to  cause  rotting  between  times  of 
filling.  The  development  of  heat  in  the  silo  cannot 
be  avoided,  and  does  not  necessarily  occasion 
great  loss  of  substance,  although  fermentation 
always  results  in  more  or  less  breaking  down  of 
substance,  and  in  some  loss;  in  the  case  of  corn, 
this  loss  is  chiefly  in  the  carbohydrates. 

When  the  work  can  proceed  steadily,  from 
eight  to  fifteen  tons  per  day  may  be  put  in  small 
and  medium-sized  silos,  but,  as  already  indicated, 
the  silage  should  not  stand  more  than  two  days 
between  successive  fillings.  The  importance  of 
thoroughly  compacting  silage  at  the  time  of  filling 
the  silo  is  not  usually  sufficiently  well  understood. 
The  thorough  tramping  not  only  enables  a  much 

K 


162 


FOB AGE    CHOPS 


larger  quantity  of  silage  to  be  put  in,  but  it  expels 
at  once  a  very  large  volume  of  air,  which,  if 
allowed  to  remain,  prolongs  the  changes.  It  should 
be  tramped  well  around  the  sides  because  the 
lateral  pressure  of  the  silage  tends  to  develop  fric- 
tion against  the  walls,  which  prevents  its  settling. 
In  building  a  silo,  it  should  be  as  deep  as  it  is 
practicable  to  make  it.  The  advantages  of  a  deep 
silo  are  that  the  largest  quantity  of  feed  per  cubic 

*Table   Giving  the  Approximate  Capacity  of  Cylindrical 
Silos  for  Well-Matured  Corn  Silage,  in  Tons 


<0 

Inside  diameter  in  feet 

p. 

ft 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20.. 

58.84 

66.95 

75.58 

84.74 

94.41 

104.6 

115.3 

126.6 

138.3 

150.6 

163.4 

176.8 

21.. 

62.90 

71.56 

80.79 

90.57 

100.9 

111.8 

123.3 

135.3 

147.9 

161.0 

174.7 

189.0 

22.. 

67.35 

76.52 

86.38 

96.84 

107.9 

119.6 

131.8 

144.7 

158.1 

172.2 

186.8 

202.1 

h.. 

71.73 

81.61 

92.14 

103.3 

115.1 

127.5 

140.6 

154.3 

168.7 

183.6 

199.3 

215.5 

24.. 

76.12 

86.61 

97.78 

109.6 

122.1 

135.3 

149.2 

163.7 

179.0 

194.9 

211.5 

228.7 

25.. 

80.62 

89.64 

103.6 

116.1 

129.3 

143.3 

158.0 

173.4 

189.5 

206.4 

223.9 

242.2 

26.. 

85.45 

97.23 

109.8 

123.0 

137.1 

151.9 

167.5 

183.8 

200.9 

218.8 

237.4 

256.7 

27.. 

90.17 

102.6 

115.8 

129.8 

144.7 

100.3 

176.7 

194.0 

212.0 

230.8 

250.5 

270.9 

28.. 

94.99 

108.1 

122.0 

136.8 

154.4 

168.9 

186.2 

204.3 

223.3 

243.2 

2G3.9 

285.4 

29.. 

99.92 

113.7 

128.3 

143.9 

160.3 

177.6 

195.8 

214.9 

234.9 

255.8 

277.6 

300.2 

30.. 

105.0 

119.4 

134.8 

151.1 

168.4 

186.6 

205.7 

225.8 

246.8 

268.7 

291.6 

315.3 

31.. 

109.8 

124.9 

141.1 

158.2 

176.2 

195.2 

115.3 

236.3 

258.2 

281.8 

305.1 

330.0 

32.. 

115.1 

135.9 

147.8 

165.7 

184.6 

204.6 

225.5 

247.5 

270.5 

294.6 

319.6 

345.7 

In  this  table  the  horizontal  lines  give  the  number  of  tons  of  silage  held  by  a 
silo  having  the  depth  given  at  the  head  of  the  column. 

*  Bulletin  No.  83,  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


CUTTING    SILAGE    CORN  1G3 

foot  can  be  stored;  the  silage  packs  tighter  and 
loss  is  prevented  at  the  surface  when  feeding ;  and 
when  closely  tramped  against  the  wall,  air  is 
excluded  and  the  silage  keeps  better  than  when 
it  is  shallow. 

The  quantity  of  silage  that  may  be  stored  in  a 
silo  increases  in  a  higher  ratio  than  the  depth 
increases;  a  silo  thirty- six  feet  deep  will  store 
nearly  five  times  as  much  as  one  twelve  feet  deep. 

Cutting  corn  for  the  silo  may  be  done  either  by 
hand  or  by  the  "self-binder."  When  the  crop  is 
large  enough,  the  latter  is  preferable,  because  a 
team  may  do  the  cutting  late  in  the  afternoon  or 
early  morning,  and  thus  reduce  the  number  of  men 
needed.  Besides,  the  binding  of  the  corn  makes 
it  much  easier  to  handle,  both  in  loading  and  in 
feeding.  There  are  a  number  of  excellent  silage 
cutters.  The  mistake  commonly  made  by  farmers 
is  in  getting  those  that  are  too  small ;  it  is  better 
to  have  a  cutter  a  little  larger  than  is  needed. 
Few  should  have  cutting  blades  less  than  fourteen 
inches  long.  It  is  also  very  important  that  the 
power  to  drive  the  cutter  should  be  considerably 
in  excess  of  its  guaranteed  capacity;  especially  is 
this  the  case  when  blowers  are  used,  instead  of 
carriers,  as  it  is  important  to  have  not  only  a  high 
speed  but  a  steady  power. 

After   the    silo    is    filled,    the    top    should    be 
covered  with  earth  or  other  material,  which  will 


164  FORAGE   CROPS 

pack  tightly,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  air. 
Many  farmers  recommend  the  thorough  wetting 
of  the  surface,  a  light  covering  of  soil,  and  the 
seeding  of  oats,  as  the  cheapest  and  surest  way 
to  make  the  silo  tight.  While  there  is  consider- 
able loss  under  the  very  best  methods  of  handling 
and  packing  the  corn  in  the  silo,  chiefly  falling  on 
the  carbohydrate  group,  these  losses  have  been 
shown  to  be  no  greater  than  those  which  take  place 
in  the  common  handling  of  the  corn  after  it  has 
been  cut  and  husked.  The  changes  in  the  silo, 
other  than  direct  losses  of  carbohydrates,  are  due 
chiefly  to  modifications  in  the  nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents, the  albuminoids  being  changed  into  other 
forms,  even  though  the  feed  value  is  not  seriously 
reduced. 

In  the  construction  of  the  winter  silo,  the  size 
should  be  so  adjusted  to  the  number  of  cattle  as  to 
allow  a  removal  of  about  two  inches  of  the  surface 
per  day.  In  the  summer  silo  there  should  be  a  re- 
moval of  three  to  four  inches,  otherwise  the  heat- 
ing or  fermentation  which  begins  as  soon  as  the 
surface  layer  is  removed,  will  result  in  consider- 
able changes,  and  consequent  reduction  in  the 
food  value  of  the  silage.  What  is  termed  "sweet 
silage"  is  possibly  a  misnomer,  although  there  is 
great  difference  in  the  composition  of  silage  made 
and  used  under  the  conditions  here  outlined.  The 
development  of  acid  is  very  rapid,  if  the  air  is 


FEEDING    OF   SILAGE  165 

allowed  to   come  in   contact  with  the   silage  for 
reasonably  short  periods. 

The  amount  of  silage  to  feed 

The  quantity  of  silage  to  feed  should  be  regu- 
lated to  some  extent  by  the  kind  of  silage  and  the 
size  of  the  animals.  It  should  never  serve  as  the 
exclusive  food,  but  mainly  to  supply  carbohydrate 
roughage.  From  thirty  to  thirty- five  pounds  per 
day,  containing  say  28  to  30  per  cent  of  dry 
matter,  are  sufficient  for  an  animal  of  1,000 
pounds  live  weight.  The  feeding  of  silage  should 
be  accompanied,  of  course,  by  the  use  of  the 
proper  fine  or  concentrated  feeds,  and  preferably 
with  a  little  dry  material,  as  cut  corn-stalks  or 
hay.  When  fed  in  this  way,  the  results  are  alto- 
gether good. 

There  have  been  no  genuine  investigations 
showing  that  silage  causes  any  injury,  when 
properly  fed,  or  is  in  any  way  deleterious  to 
the  health  of  the  animals,  or  unfavorably  affects 
milk,  butter  or  cheese.  On  the  contrary,  the 
health  of  animals  in  winter  is  usually  better  under 
the  use  of  the  succulent  food,  and  the  returns  per 
unit  of  dry  matter  for  silage  used  in  the  dairy, 
compared  with  the  dry  fodder  corn,  are  about  12 
per  cent  greater.  These  results  have  been  secured 
in   actual   experiments  to  determine  the    relative 


1GG  FOE  AGE    CROPS 

value  of  the  two  kinds  of  forage.  There  is  no 
question,  therefore,  of  the  value  of  this  method  of 
preserving  corn  for  food.  Whenever  farmers  have 
a  sufficient  number  of  dairy,  beef  or  young  cattle 
to  warrant  the  building  of  a  silo,  there  will  be  no 
question  as  to  the  advantage  of  the  system. 

The  gains  in  the  making  of  silage  over  the 
using  of  the  grain  and  stover,  are,  (1)  the  preven- 
tion of  mechanical  losses  in  the  harvesting  of  the 
corn;  (2)  the  advantage  of  the  removal  of  the 
entire  crop  at  one  time,  so  as  to  permit  of  a  more 
rapid  growth  and  development  of  cover- crops, 
which  are  so  important  in  the  conservation  of 
fertility;  (3)  reduction  in  actual  cost  of  labor 
per  unit  of  feed  obtained,  which  will  result  when- 
ever farmers  are  equipped  for  the  rapid  handling 
of  large  quantities  of  material  in  a  short  time. 
The  silo  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  equipment  of 
daiiy  farms  in  the  North  and  East,  as  the  corn- 
crib  is  of  the  farms  of  the  West. 

Composition  of  Corn  Fodder  and  Stlage 

Dried  One  ton  One  ton  One  ton 

fodder  contains  Stover  contains  Silage  contains 

Per  cent  Lbs.  Per  cent  Lbs.  Per  cent  Lbs. 

Water.   .    .   .    42.20  .   .    .  40.50  .   .    .  79.10  .    .    . 

Dry  matter     .    57.80  1,156  59.50  1,190  20.90  418 

Ether  extract.     1.G0  32  1.10  22  0.80  16 

Fiber    ....    14.30  286  19.70  394  6.00  120 

Protein    ...      4  50  90  3.80  76  1.70  34 

Ash 2.70  50  3.40  68  1.40  28 

Nitrogen-free 

extract    .    .    34.70  694  31.50  630  11.00  220 


CHAPTER   X 

LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE    CROPS 

Every  farmer  is  now  familiar  with  the  group 
of  leguminous  crops.  This  group  deserves  even 
more  attention  than  it  is  now  receiving,  because  of 
the  relations  of  the  plants  to  nitrogen.  The  plants 
belonging  to  the  legume  family  include  the  various 
clovers,  peas  and  beans.  All  these  plants  have  a 
source  of  supply  of  plant- food  that  is  not  acces- 
sible to  most  other  plants,  particularly  not  to  the 
cereal  plants.  It  is  well  known  that  after  a  crop 
of  clover  the  land,  as  a  rule,  produces  a  better 
growth  of  corn,  or  other  cereals,  than  when  such  a 
crop  follows  a  grain  or  a  grass  crop.  It  was  thought 
for  a  long  time  that  this  improvement  in  land  was 
due  to  the  greater  proportion  of  root  substance  in 
the  surface  soil,  because  the  plants  root  deep  and 
gather  food  from  the  lower  layers,  storing  it  in 
the  thickened  roots.  The  soil  improvement  was 
not  attributed  to  their  power  of  gathering  nitrogen 
from  the  air  until  careful  experiments  showed  that 
the  soil  nitrogen  was  not  consumed  but  rather  in- 
creased by  their  growth.  The  fact  that  clover 
gives  better  returns  as  a  stock  feed  than  an  equiva- 
lent weight  of  timothy  was  also  known  for  a  long 

(167) 


168  FORAGE    CROPS 

time,  and  investigation  of  the  composition  of 
the  two  showed  that  this  difference  was  due  to  a 
larger  proportion  of  nitrogenous  substance  in  the 
clover  than  in  the  timothy. 

It  is  now  known  that  the  individual  members  of 
this  group  of  plants  possess  the  peculiar  property 
of  being  able  to  secure  the  important  element  ni- 
trogen, in  part,  at  least,  from  the  air.  Therefore, 
they  may  not  need  nitrogenous  fertilizers  after  they 
are  well  established,  and  they  may  add  to  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  when  they  are  returned 
to  the  earth.  The  advantage  of  leguminous  crops 
to  the  feeder  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  plants 
themselves  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  nitroge- 
nous matter  than  those  of  the  grass  family,  and 
thereby  may  be  used  to  supplement  other  foods 
and  to  reduce  bills  for  purchased  and  concentrated 
feeds.  One  can  more  profitably  utilize  the  carbo- 
hydrates usually  contained  in  excess  in  other 
plants;  and  he  is  relieved  of  some  of  the  necessity 
of  purchasing  nitrogenous  fertilizers  to  increase 
the  growth  of  the  cereal  crops. 

Soil  inoculation 

While  leguminous  crops  possess  this  superior 
advantage  in  the  ability  to  appropriate  nitrogen,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  this  power  is  not  constant 
for  all  soils  and  under  all  conditions;   but  in  order 


INOCULATION  FOR  LEGUMES  169 

that  this  peculiar  function  may  be  exercised,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  shall  be  present  in  the  soil 
certain  organisms  which  attach  themselves  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  The  presence  of  these  organ- 
isms is  indicated  by  the  formation  of  tubercles  or 
nodules  on  the  roots,  which  range  in  size  on  differ- 
ent kinds  of  plants  from  that  of  a  pin-head  to  that 
of  a  pea.  When  these  nodules  are  not  present,  it 
is  usually  an  indication  that  the  proper  organisms 
are  absent  and  that  the  legumes,  in  common 
with  other  plants,  must  derive  their  nitrogen  from 
the  soil;  and  thus,  from  the  standpoint  of  accu- 
mulation of  nitrogen,  they  are  probably  no  more 
useful  than  the  cereal  or  other  crops. 

Investigations  of  the  life-history  of  these  minute 
organisms  show  that  there  are  certain  conditions 
unfavorable  for  their  growth  and  development, 
winch  explains  why  they  are  absent  in  many  soils 
For  example,  it  has  been  shown  that  they  are  likely 
not  to  be  present  in  soils  that  are  poorly  drained, 
and  when  air  cannot  penetrate  and  circulate  freely. 
It  has  also  been  found  that  an  acid  condition  of 
soil  is  not  favorable  to  their  growth.  They  are  also 
liable,  even  if  originally  present,  to  be  destroyed 
at  certain  periods  if  soils  are  allowed  to  remain 
uncultivated  for  some  time.  In  other  words,  in 
undrained,  acid,  and  light  sandy  soils  deficient  in 
organic  matter,  the  organisms  are  not  so  likely  to 
be  present  as  in  those  that  are  well  supplied  with 


170  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

organic  matter,  are  neutral  in  their  reaction,  and 
are  well-drained;  and  these  are  the  conditions, 
also,  that  are  favorable  for  crops,  providing*  suffi- 
cient food  is  present. 

Methods  of  inoculation 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  becomes  necessary,  in 
order  to  secure  the  full  benefit  from  the  growth  of 
leguminous  crops,  to  see  that  the  proper  organisms 
are  present.  This  may  be  readily  accomplished  by 
inoculation,  or  introducing  the  specific  organism. 
Soils  deficient  in  these  organisms  may  be  supplied 
by  using  earth  from  the  fields  in  which  they  are 
known  to  be  present.  Experiments  show  that  only 
a  small  quantity  is  necessary,  if  evenly  distributed, 
to  accomplish  the  purpose.  From  one  to  three 
hundred  pounds  of  mixed  soil,  taken  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  field,  will  be  sufficient  for  one 
acre,  if  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in.  The  soil 
should  be  taken  from  a  field  in  which  the  same 
kind  of  crop  has  been  successfully  grown.  The 
organisms  will  multiply  when  legumes  are  grown, 
will  distribute  rapidly,  and  be  prepared  immedi- 
ately to  begin  their  helpful  work.  Once  the  organ- 
isms are  present,  there  is  little  danger  of  their 
destruction  under  good  farm  practice.  If  the  crops 
that  are  grown  on  this  area  are  fed  to  farm  stock, 
and   the   manure  is  used  elsewhere  on  the  farm, 


I  NO  CULATIOiY  171 

the  chances  are  that  the  organisms  will  soon  be 
generally  distributed.  It  is  especially  desirable 
that  land  be  inoculated  for  alfalfa,  if  it  has  not 
grown  alfalfa  previously.  Clover  lands  are  not 
often  inoculated. 

It  often  happens  that  in  the  growing  of  such 
plants  as  cowpeas  and  soybeans,  the  first  crop  will 
not  show  the  tubercles,  but  the  second  one  will  be 
well  supplied  with  them,  indicating  that  the  organ- 
isms may  be  introduced  by  means  of  the  seed  or 
the  dust  that  goes  with  it.  Some  seedsmen  now 
make  it  a  practice  in  harvesting  soybeans  and  cow- 
peas  to  pull  them  instead  of  cutting  them,  thus 
mingling  more  or  less  of  the  soil  with  the  seed  in 
the  threshing. 

The  organisms  of  different  leguminous  crops 
have  recently  been  investigated  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,1  and  methods 
devised  for  providing  suitable  nutrients  for  them. 
As  a  result,  cultures  have  been  prepared  and 
distributed,  together  with  the  food  necessary  for 
their  early  growth.  The  commercial  cultures  have 
not  yet  been  successful  in  practice,  however;  but 
eventually  good  results  may  be  obtained. 

The  grower  should  remember  that  inoculation  of 
the  soil  is  only  one  factor  in  the  growth  of  these 
plants.  Good  crops  cannot  be  grown  on  poor,  wet, 
or  acid  soils,  or  under  unfavorable  culture  condi- 

1  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  71,  January,  1905. 


172  FORAGE    CHOPS 

tions   by  inoculation    alone;    the  other  conditions 
of  growth  must  also  be  made  favorable. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  gathered 

It  does  not  follow  that  even  when  these  organ- 
isms are  present  and  all  other  conditions  are  fav- 
orable, all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  legume  crop  has 
been  gathered  from  the  air.  It  has  been  shown 
that  the  plants  preferably  take  soil -nitrogen  rather 
than  air- nitrogen.  On  good  soils  containing  much 
available  nitrogen,  or  directly  well  supplied  with 
this  element,  the  proportionate  amount  of  nitrogen 
appropriated  from  the  air  will  be  much  less  than 
when  the  crop  is  grown  on  soils  poor  in  nitrogen, 
even  if  inoculation  has  been  made.  The  amount 
of  nitrogen  gathered  by  a  crop,  therefore,  cannot 
be  exactly  determined,  although,  as  just  indicated, 
it  is  thought  that  the  usefulness  of  the  legumes  as 
a  means  of  acquiring  atmospheric  nitrogen  and 
adding  to  the  stores  in  the  soil,  is  greater  when 
they  are  grown  on  soils  rather  poor  in  this 
element. 

It  has  also  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  the 
proportion  of  nitrogen  gathered  from  the  air,  par- 
ticularly on  poor  soils,  even  when  the  proper  or- 
ganisms are  present,  depends  on  the  supply  of  the 
other  necessary  plant- food  ingredients.  Soils  poor 
in  nitrogen  and  uncongenial  in  physical  character 


NITROGEN-GATHERING  173 

will  not  produce  a  large  crop  of  any  leguminous 
plant  unless  well  supplied  with  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash.  Therefore,  in  attempts  to  increase  the 
protein  supply  of  the  farm  by  means  of  leguminous 
plants,  it  is  quite  as  necessary  to  fertilize  with  the 
minerals  as  it  would  be  to  grow  any  other  crop. 
This  is  entirely  reasonable,  as  the  mineral  constit- 
uents cannot  be  secured  from  any  other  source 
than  the  soil  and  these  are  quite  as  essential  to 
leguminous  crops  as  to  any  others,  or  as  the  nitro- 
gen itself. 

Kinds  of  leguminous  crops 

The  family  Leguminosse,  or  pulse  family,  is 
very  large  and  it  is  represented  in  the  flora  of  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  Some  of  the  legumes  are  trees, 
as  locusts,  red-bud,  yellow- wood;  others  are 
bushes,  as  furze,  broom,  lead-plant;  some  are 
tall  woody  climbers,  as  wistaria;  others  are  agri- 
cultural herbs,  some  of  which  are  grown  for  for- 
age, as  alfalfa,  clovers,  cowpea,  soybean,  velvet- 
bean,  vetches,  pea,  and  these  are  to  be  considered 
further  in  the  three  chapters  that  follow. 


Fig.  33.     Oats-and-peas. 


CHAPTER    XI 

COMBINATION  CROPS    WITH  LEGUMES 

Various  crops  may  be  grown  in  combination, 
in  which  leguminous  plants  occupy  an  important 
place.  The  combination  crops  with  legumes  afford 
a  very  perfect  balancing  of  nutrients,  they  often 
increase  the  acre  yield,  and  sometimes  they  afford 
the  best  means  of  utilizing  land.  These  combina- 
tions are  of  three  groups:  (1).  Hardy  annual 
legumes  (peas  and  vetches)  grown  with  cool -sea- 
son cereals;  (2)  tender  annual  legumes  (cow-peas, 
soybeans,  velvet  beans)  grown  with  warm- season 
cereals;  (3)  mixtures  of  clovers  and  grasses. 
When  carefully  managed,  these  combinations  give 
the  desirable  results  of  each  of  the  ingredients 
and  afford  another  resource  to  the  stock  feeder. 

OATS -AND -PEAS   FOR   FORAGE 

The  oats-and-pea  crop  is  grown  primarily  for 
use  as  green  forage,  or  for  soiling,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  most  serviceable  in  any  forage  crop  rotation, 
supplying  food  when  other  crops  are  not  usually 
available,  and  also  making  an  excellent  substitute 
for  hay  when  it  is  not  needed   for   green  forage 

(175) 


176  FORAGE   CHOPS 

purposes.  The  object  of  making  a  mixture  of  oats 
and  Canada  field  peas  is  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  crops,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  yield,  making 
both  the  total  quantity  and  the  character  of  the 
nutrients  superior  to  those  that  would  be  secured 
by  using  either  of  the  crops  alone.  The  variety  of 
oats  to  be  used  should  be  a  strong  and  vigorous 
grower,  well  adapted  to  the  locality  and  to  climatic 
conditions.  Any  variety  that  has  proved  itself 
superior  as  a  grain- producer  may  be  safely  used  for 
green  forage.  It  is  an  advantage  to  select  the  best 
seed  when  planting  for  forage  crops, — quite  as 
important  in  the  growing  of  forage  as  in  the  grow- 
ing of  grain  or  seed. 

There  is  wide  difference  in  the  varieties  of  the 
Canada  pea.  For  average  purposes,  probably  the 
Golden  Vine  is  as  satisfactory  as  any,  because  it  is 
more  generally  grown  and  the  seed  is  cheap,  and 
because  a  smaller  quantity  is  required  per  acre.  It 
is  a  medium -early  variety.  Early  varieties  that  are 
very  satisfactory  are  Canadian  Beauty  and  Black- 
Eyed  Marrowfat.  Late  varieties  are  Green- Scotch, 
Greenfield  and  Prussian  Blue.  These  later  varieties 
naturally  produce  a  larger  crop,  as  the  period  of 
growth  is  somewhat  longer.  Where  hot  weather 
comes  on  early,  medium  or  medium -early  varieties 
are  superior.  It  is  safer  to  plant  a  distinct  variety 
than  to  depend  on  mixtures  of  various  kinds, 
which  are  likely  to  mature  unevenly. 


OATS-ANDPEAS  177 

Preparation  of  soil,  and  manuring 

Oats -and -peas  are  usually  grown  on  land  on 
which  a  cultivated  crop  has  immediately  preceded, 
although  good  crops  may  be  obtained  on  sod  land 
if  it  has  been  plowed  in  the  fall  or  very  early 
spring  and  deeply  cultivated.  The  land  should  be 
well  and  deeply  prepared,  in  order  to  furnish  a 
deep  seed-bed  for  the  peas.  The  areas  best  suited 
to  the  crop  are  cool,  moist  lands.  When  the 
weather  is  cool  and  moist,  the  season  is  much 
more  favorable  than  when  hot  and  dry. 

This  crop  responds  very  favorably  to  applica- 
tions of  yard  manures.  In  fact,  there  is  no  other 
manure  that  will  so  well  or  so  completely  meet  the 
requirements;  the  organic  matter  contained  in  it 
aids  materially  in  the  development  of  the  soil  bac- 
teria, and  the  soluble  nitrogenous  and  mineral  salts 
feed  the  plants  abundantly  in  the  early  stages  of 
growth.  The  manures  should  be  broadcasted  at 
the  rate  of  eight  to  ten  tons  per  acre  after  plowing, 
and  thoroughly  harrowed  into  the  soil.  When  a 
smaller  quantity  of  manure  must  be  used,  it  may 
be  fortified  by  an  application  of  a  good  fertilizer 
mixture  whose  constituents  have  been  derived  from 
good  sources  and  containing 

Nitrogen 4  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available)      6  per  cent 

Potash 6  per  cent 

L 


OATS-AND-PEAS  179 

This  may  be  applied  either  broadcast,  or  drilled 
with  the  seed  at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  pounds  per 
acre.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  crop  makes  an 
early  growth,  the  particular  need  is  for  an  abun- 
dance of  available  nitrogen. 

Quantity  of  seed,  and  methods  of  seeding 

The  quantity  of  seed  used  on  good  soils  is  gen- 
erally about  one  and  one -half  bushels  of  oats  and 
one  and  one -half  bushels  of  peas  each  per  acre, 
although  as  thick  seeding  as  two  bushels  of  each 
has  been  even  more  successful  on  well -enriched 
soils.  Many  variations  may  be  made  in  the  pro- 
portions, however,  to  suit  the  various  conditions 
of  cost  of  seed,  kind  of  soil  and  time  of  seeding. 
Sometimes  increasing  the  peas  to  two  bushels  or 
two  and  one -half  bushels,  and  decreasing  the  oats 
to  one  bushel,  is  practiced. 

The  crop  should  be  seeded  as  early  in  spring  as 
it  is  possible  thoroughly  to  prepare  the  soil.  The 
earlier  the  crop  is  planted,  the  greater  will  be  the 
likelihood  of  a  perfect  crop,  as  both  oats  and  peas 
suffer  in  the  hot  dry  days  of  summer.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  sow  the  peas  from  five  to  eight 
days  earlier  than  the  oats.  Many  growers  recom- 
mend that  the  peas  be  plowed -in  from  four  to  six 
inches,  in  order  that  they  may  root  deeply,  and 
thus  be  better  able  to  resist   heat    and    drought. 


180  FORAGE    CROPS 

Many  other  successful  growers  prefer  to  use  the 
ordinary  grain- drill  for  the  peas  and  plant  them  as 
deeply  as  possible,  following  with  the  oats  a  few 
days  later,  and  before  the  peas  have  sprouted. 
The  experience  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station,  where  this  crop  has  been  an  important 
one  for  eight  years  and  where  different  methods 
have  been  used  in  seeding,  has  shown  that  it  is  not 
a  profitable  practice  there  to  expend  the  extra 
labor  required  in  plowing- in  the  peas  or  in  seeding 
the  two  plants  at  an  interval  of  a  few  days.  Quite 
as  even  distribution  and  as  large  yields  have  been 
secured  when  the  oats -and -peas  have  been  mixed 
in  the  grain- drill,  and  all  seeded  together.  It  is 
important  in  any  case  that  the  seed  be  distributed 
evenly. 

Time  of  cutting  oats- and- peas 

When  seeded  as  early  as  it  is  possible  to  pre- 
pare the  land,  the  first  cutting  for  green  forage 
will  be  ready  in  about  two  and  one -half  months. 
Because  of  its  good  proportion  of  nutrients,  it  may 
be  used  as  the  exclusive  source  of  food  for  dairy 
cows,  although  this  is  not  a  desirable  practice 
when  it  is  the  purpose  to  keep  the  animals  up  to 
full  standard  of  production,  as  it  would  require 
about  100  pounds  of  the  forage  per  day.1 

The  best  time  for  cutting  is  when  the  oat -grain 

1  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No.  130 


OATS-AND-PEAS  183 

is  in  milk  and  the  peas  are  forming  pods ;  at  this 
period,  the  largest  amount  of  digestible  matter 
may  be  secured.  Because  of  the  rather  slow 
maturity  of  the  crop,  particularly  if  the  weather  is 
favorable,  a  single  seeding  of  oats-and-peas  may 
furnish  supply  for  eight  to  ten  days,  providing 
cutting  begins  a  little  earlier  than  this,  or  when 
the  oats  are  just  headed  out. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  continue  the  feeding 
longer,  a  second  seeding  is  usually  made  about 
ten  days  after  the  first.  In  ordinary  seasons  this 
will  be  ready  eight  to  ten  days  after  the  first 
planting.  A  third  seeding  made  eight  or  ten  days 
later  than  the  second  is  likely  to  be  ready  for  use 
relatively  earlier,  however,  owing  to  the  more 
rapid  development  of  the  crop  as  the  hot  and  dry 
weather  advances. 

In  recent  years  a  plant-louse  has  made  its 
appearance  in  the  eastern  and  southern  coast 
states,  and  has  been  a  very  serious  pest,  attacking 
the  peas  and  practically  ruining  the  crop.  Where 
this  pest  is  present,  the  later  seedings  should  not  be 
made,  as  it  attacks  the  plants  at  the  end  of  June 
or  the  first  of  July,  when  early  seedings  have 
reached  the  cutting  stage,  and  before  later  seed- 
ings have  reached  full  development.  When 
an  abundance  of  fertilizer  has  been  used,  the 
plants  are  better  able  to  resist  or  outrun  the 
attacks  of  the  insect. 


184  FORAGE  CHOPS 

Yield,  uses,  and  quality  of  crop 

The  yield  varies  widely,  ranging  from  six  to 
twelve  tons  per  acre.  The  early  cuttings  are  not 
rich  in  dry  matter,  although  the  average  is  higher 
than  for  some  other  forage  crops.  The  oats-and- 
peas  crop  gives  a  relatively  higher  percentage  of 
protein  than  is  obtained  in  wheat,  rye  or  grasses, 
and  it  serves  a  very  good  purpose  as  a  balanced 
ration. 

This  crop  also  makes  most  excellent  hay,  pala- 
table for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock,  and  much  richer 
in  the  digestible  nutrients  than  timothy,  though 
not  so  rich  in  protein  as  clover.  It  should  be  cut 
for  hay  when  at  its  best  for  forage,  namely,  when 
the  oats  are  in  the  milk  stage,  and  when  the  peas 
are  forming  pods. 

A  larger  yield  of  dry  matter  may  be  secured  by 
allowing  the  two  crops  to  ripen,  harvesting  and 
threshing  the  mixed  grain  crop,  grinding  the  grain 
and  using  it  for  feed  and  using  the  straw  as  rough- 
age. The  expense  of  this  practice  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  hay-making,  and  the  yield  of  diges- 
tible matter  has  been  found  to  be  no  greater.  An 
experiment  at  the  New  Jersey  Station1  to  test  this 
point  showed  that  while  the  cured  grain  crop  gave 
a  larger  yield  of  total  nutrients  than  the  crop  cured 
as  hay,  the  expense  of  the  former  method  was 

Annual  Report  for  1901,  p.  278 


186  FORAGE    CROPS 

much  greater.  The  hay  cost  $8.24  per  ton,  and 
the  oat- and -pea  feed,  $22.60,  and  the  oat -and -pea 
straw,  $6  per  ton.  The  use  of  fife  pounds  of  the 
straw  and  seven  pounds  of  the  oat -and -pea  feed 
resulted  in  2.6  per  cent  larger  yield  of  milk  than 
fourteen  pounds  of  the  hay,  although  the  feed  cost 
of  milk  per  hundred  was  61.6  cents,  when  the  oat- 
and-pea  ration  was  fed,  and  49.9  cents  when 
the  oat- and -pea  hay  ration  was  fed.  The  experi- 
ment showed  clearly  that  both  rations  are  palatable 
and  digestible,  and  can  be  successfully  used  as 
partial  substitutes  for  purchased  feeds,  although 
indicating  the  greater  economy  as  a  source  of 
nutrients  of  the  oat- and- pea  hay.  Allowing  the 
crop  to  ripen,  therefore,  is  not  a  profitable  prac- 
tice, excepting  when  labor  is  abundant  and  cheap, 
or  when  it  is  more  desirable  to  produce  fine  feeds 
than  to  purchase  them. 

Composition  of  Oat-and-Pea  Crops 


Oat-and  pea-green  forage 
Oats  and  peas,  matured  . 
Oat-and-pea  hay    .    . 
Oat-and-pea  straw    .   .    . 
Oats  and  peas,  ground    . 

These  analyses  are  the  average  of  those  made 
at  the  New  Jersey  Station,  where  the  pea  is  used 
in  larger  proportion  than  is  here  given,  or  at  the 


Water 

% 

Fat 

% 

Fiber 

% 

Protein 

% 

Ash 

% 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

% 

.  79.44 

0.70 

6.19 

2.04 

1.59 

10.03 

.  17.68 

2.57 

23.76 

9.44 

5.83 

40.72 

.  31.27 

1.96 

22.80 

7.00 

5.80 

30.50 

.    9.21 

2.33 

32.83 

4.11 

6.89 

44.63 

.    9.92 

3.8L 

10.91 

16.73 

4.72 

53.91 

OATS    WITH  PUAS    OB    VETCH  187 

rate  of  two  bushels  of  peas  to  one  or  one  and  one- 
half  bushels  of  oats.  This  proportion  is  frequently 
desirable,  depending  on  the  relative  price  of  seed 
and  adaptability  of  soil.  The  forage  and  hay  will 
be  much  richer  in  protein  than  is  given  in  these 
analyses. 

When  this  crop  is  seeded  primarily  to  supple- 
ment natural  pastures,  it  is  often  used  as  pasture 
rather  than  as  a  soiling  crop.  This  is  a  very  waste- 
ful practice,  as  under  the  best  conditions  of  pas- 
turage not  more  than  one -third  to  one -half  of  the 
actual  food  will  be  used  by  the  animals. 

Observations  of  the  effect  of  feeding  of  oat- and 
pea  forage  to  dairy  cows  show  that  it  exerts  a 
very  favorable  influence  on  the  physical  quality 
of  milk.  When  farmers  are  raising  their  own 
milk  and  selling  it  to  special  customers,  there  are 
very  great  advantages  in  using  this  crop,  either  as 
green  forage  or  as  hay. 

OATS -AND -VETCH 

The  methods  or  practice  used  in  the  growing  of 
oats -and -peas  apply  in  the  case  of  oats-and- 
spring-vetch  (Vicia  sativa) .  This  crop  is  not  so 
palatable  as  oats -and -peas  and  has  not  been  so 
generally  used.  The  chief  difference  in  manage- 
ment is  in  the  quantity  of  seed  used  per  acre.  Thus 
far,  the   seeding  of  one  and   one-half  bushels  of 


0ATS-AND-VETCI1  189 

oats  and  three -fourths  of  a  bushel  of  vetch  has 
been  very  satisfactory.  The  vetch  makes  much 
more  leaf,  and  is  not  so  firm  a  grower  as  the  pea, 
but  under  favorable  conditions  it  will  make  a  large 
yield.  It  is  not  open  to  the  disadvantage  of  being 
attacked  by  the  pea- louse,  and  thus  will  serve  in 
combination  with  oats  when  later  seedings  of  oats- 
and-peas  are  found  to  be  undesirable.  The  method 
of  harvesting  and  feeding  are  the  same  as  for  the 
oats -and- peas. 

This  crop  also  makes  an  excellent  hay,  the 
vetch  contributing  the  protein  in  larger  proportion 
and  making  a  food  rich  in  nitrogenous  nutrients. 
When  the  vetch  is  allowed  to  mature,  it  shells 
rapidly,  and  unless  care  is  used  may  prove  a 
nuisance  by  volunteering  as  a  weed. 

BARLEY -AND -PEAS 

For  late  feeding,  a  combination  of  barley  and 
Canada  field  peas  is  desirable,  as  the  pea  makes  a 
luxuriant  growth  in  late  fall  and  is  not  injured 
except  by  heavy. freezing;  and  the  pea-louse,  which 
is  so  destructive  to  the  spring- seeded  Canada  pea, 
usually  does  not  attack  the  fall -sown  crop.  The 
quantity  of  seed  should  be  about  one  and  one -half 
bushels  of  barley  and  one  and  one -half  bushels  of 
the  pea,  seeded  in  the  same  way  as  oats -and -peas, 
preferably  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  August. 


190  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

The  composition  of  this  product  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  oats -and -peas,  although, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  does  not  mature,  it 
is  naturally  a  little  richer  in  protein  than  the 
oats -and -peas.  It  can  be  fed  in  the  same  way, 
except  that  a  smaller  quantity  should  be  used, — 
from  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  day.  Where  this 
crop  can  be  successfully  grown  it  is  very  useful, 
as  it  lengthens  the  soiling  period  by  at  least  two 
weeks. 

WARM  -  SEASON     COMBINATIONS 

In  addition  to  such  combinations  of  soiling 
crops  as  oats -and -peas,  oats -and -vetch,  rye-and- 
peas,  there  are  others  which  at  times  at  least  are 
advantageous,  although  experiments  have  not  yet 
been  sufficient  to  determine  whether  under  all  cir- 
cumstances it  is  advisable  to  use  them.  The  leading 
crops  that  may  be  used  for  these  combinations  are : 
corn,  sorghum,  kafir  corn  and  millet,  seeded  with 
cowpeas  or  soybeans.  The  advantages  of  the  com- 
bining of  these  crops  are  (1)  the  production  of  a 
more  nearly  balanced  ration;  (2)  the  larger  yield 
that  may  be  secured  per  acre,  when  all  conditions 
are  favorable;  (3)  the  greater  certainty  of  a  paying 
crop  when  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  one  or 
the  other  alone. 

For  summer  soiling,  the  advantages  of  growing 
kafir  corn  with  cowpeas  or  soybeans,  or  of  barn- 


WARM  -SEASON  COMBINATIONS  193 

yard  millet  with  cowpeas,  are  usually  abundantly 
apparent.  With  the  latter  combination,  unless  the 
season  is  very  warm,  the  millet  will  mature  earlier 
than  the  cowpeas,  yet  there  is  the  advantage  that 
the  corn  or  millet  supports  the  cowpea,  making  the 
cowpea  easier  to  harvest,  prolonging  the  period  of 
profitable  use,  and  providing  a  much  better  ration. 
Very  excellent  yields  have  been  secured  with  these 
combinations.  Kafir  corn  or  millet  may  be  utilized 
for  a  longer  period  than  if  either  the  kafir  corn  or 
millet  were  used  alone,  which  is  at  times  a  matter 
of  very  considerable  importance. 

In  the  case  of  maize -and -cowpeas  or  soybeans, 
the  advantages  of  the  combination  are  usually  not 
so  apparent,  although  in  certain  regions  the  com- 
binations have  been  found  to  be  very  desirable, 
and  have  been  recommended  particularly  for  silage, 
since  the  combined  crop  provides  a  practically 
balanced  ration  for  winter  feeding.  The  trouble  is 
that  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  nutrients  is  to  be 
provided  in  a  succulent  ration  made  up  of  maize 
and  cowpea  silage,  a  too  large  quantity  must  be 
used  in  order  that  the  animals  may  secure  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  dry  matter.  A  safer,  although  a 
slightly  more  expensive  method,  is  to  plant  the 
maize -and -cowpeas  separately,  and  make  the  cow- 
peas into  hay.  Silage  and  cowpea  hay  are  not  open 
to  this  objection,  as  the  succulent  ration  need  not 
exceed  thirty  to  thirty- five  pounds  per  day. 

M 


194  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

Sorghum-and-cowpeas,  or  sorghum -and -soy- 
beans, make  an  excellent  summer  forage,  providing 
the  sorghum  is  seeded  rather  thickly  and  harvested 
before  it  has  nearly  reached  maturity. 

The  quantity  of  seed  recommended  for  all  these 
combination  crops  is  one -half  that  used  when  each 
of  the  crops  is  grown  singly. 

MIXED   GRASSES   AND   CLOVERS 

On  most  farms  in  the  dairy  sections  of  the 
country,  timothy,  red -top  and  clovers  (both  red 
and  alsike) ,  and  timothy  and  clovers  are  two  mix- 
tures generally  used  for  pasture  and  hay- making. 
When  the  purpose  of  growing  forage  crops  is  pri- 
marily to  supplement  natural  pastures,  this  crop 
of  mixed  grasses  and  clovers  serves  a  most  excel- 
lent purpose  in  supplying  the  need  in  emergencies. 
In  many  localities,  the  grasses  are  seeded  in  the 
fall  with  field  crops,  as  with  wheat  or  rye,  and 
the  clovers  are  seeded  in  early  spring,  either  with- 
out covering  or  with  light  harrowing. 

When  immediate  and  large  returns  are  impor- 
tant, seedings  may  be  made  without  cover -crop  in 
the  late  summer  or  early  fall.  The  best  time  of 
seeding  has  been  found  to  be  from  the  middle  of 
August  to  the  first  of  October,  depending  on  the 
locality.  At  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station, 
many  tests   have   been   made   as  to  methods  and 


MIXED   MEADOWS  195 

times  of  seeding',  and  it  has  been  found  that  for  that 
locality  (which  would  probably  be  true  for  a  large 
part  of  the  East)  this  method  of  seeding  in  late 
summer  without  nurse- crop  is  a  very  desirable 
one,  as  the  seedings  may  be  made  after  other  crops 
are  removed,  as,  for  example,  after  potatoes,  oats, 
or  even  after  the  same  grass  mixture  when  the 
land  has  been  plowed  immediately  after  the  hay 
has  been  removed,  and  cultivated  frequently 
before  seeding.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  land 
shall  have  been  planted  with  wheat  or  rye,  as  is 
the  general  custom;  the  seedings  are  more  liable 
to  take  when  this  old  practice  is  not  followed. 

The  preparation  of  soil,  and  seeding 

Frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  of  land  dur- 
ing the  entire  preceding  summer,  accompanied  by 
heavy  fertilization,  is  strongly  recommended,  al- 
though this  is  not  found  to  be  feasible  by  all 
growers;  the  principle  is  correct,  however,  and 
whenever  the  areas  are  not  too  large  and  when 
the  farmer  has  abundant  capital  for  the  purchase 
of  fertilizers,  it  may  be  profitably  followed.  In 
general,  however,  the  conditions  do  not  warrant 
such  an  expensive  mode  of  preparation  and  seed- 
ing, and  a  system  has  been  developed  at  the  New 
Jersey  Station  which  is  entirely  practicable  under 
what  may  be  regarded  as  more  extensive  condi- 


Fig.  41.     Corn-and  cowpeas  for  silage,  the  cowpeas  planted  live  days 
after  the  corn. 


MIXED   MEADOWS  197 

tions,  not  requiring  so  large  an  outlay  of  labor  and 
money.  By  this  method  the  land  from  which  crops 
are  removed  early  enough,  is  plowed  in  July  and 
thoroughly  and  frequently  tilled  until  about  the 
middle  of  August;  this  frequent  tillage  destroys 
many  weed  seeds,  ensures  a  thorough  division  of 
the  soil  particles,  and  conduces  to  the  unlocking 
of  plant- food  and  encouraging  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  soil  bacteria.  When  the  main  pur- 
pose in  the  use  of  either  of  these  mixtures  of 
grasses  and  clovers  is  to  secure  hay,  and  to  have 
the  land  remain  in  permanent  meadow,  the  use 
of  yard  manures  immediately  before  seeding  is 
not  generally  desirable,  owing  to  the  danger  of 
adding  weed  seed,  although  the  thickness  of  the 
seeding  of  grasses  and  the  treatment  of  the  fields 
in  respect  to  top  -  dressing  will  overcome  this 
danger  to  some  extent. 

When  it  is  found  desirable  to  re -seed,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  sod  be  planted  with  other  crops, 
but  it  may  be  at  once  re -seeded  with  the  grasses, 
provided  it  is  plowed  immediately  after  the  first 
cutting  has  been  removed,  and  thoroughly  tilled  in 
the  months  of  July  and  early  August.  This  prac- 
tice will  permit  a  continuous  growth  of  a  crop  that 
is  suitable  for  green  forage,  although  grown  pri- 
marily for  pasture  and  for  hay. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  will  depend  to 
some  extent  on  the  character  of  the  land  and  its 


198  FOB  AGE    CBOPS 

preparation.  When  the  land  is  naturally  good  and 
well  prepared,  the  quantity  of  seed  may  be  rela- 
tively large;  but  if  it  is  poor  and  in  bad  con- 
dition, a  large  quantity  of  seed  will  not  encour- 
age a  proportionately  heavy  growth,  as  a  great 
number  of  young  plants  will  perish  because  of  the 
lack  of  a  proper  medium  for  their  growth  and 
nourishment.  The  following  seed  mixture  has  been 
used  with  very  great  success,  and  as  a  general 
grass  and  clover  mixture  for  dairy  farms  can  be 
strongly  recommended,  because  it  is  one  for  which 
the  seed  can  be  readily  obtained,  is  not  expensive, 
and  possesses  a  sufficient  number  of  distinct  plants 
to  permit  of  complete  occupation  of  the  land : 

Timothy 8  pounds 

Red  clover 4  pounds 

Alsike 2  pounds 

Cleaned  red -top 2  pounds 

This  mixture  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds  per  acre, — not  less  than 
twenty  pounds  on  medium  soil,  and  as  much  as 
twenty- four  to  thirty  pounds  or  even  more  on  very 
good  soil.  If  seeded  in  the  middle  states  anj^  time 
from  the  middle  of  August  to  not  later  than  Sep- 
tember 20,  this  mixture  of  grasses  and  clovers  will 
make  sufficient  growth  in  fall  to  cover  the  ground 
completely,  and  prevent  the  starting  of  weeds,  and 
under  good  climatic  conditions  will  successfully 
survive  the  winter. 


MIXED  MEADOWS  201 

Manures  and  fertilizers 

It  has  been  shown  by  experiments  that  a  liberal 
supply  of  plant -food  from  artificial  sources  is 
quite  as  serviceable  in  supplying  the  plants  with 
their  needs  as  a  supply  from  natural  manures, 
provided  there  is  sufficient  organic  matter  in  the 
soil.  If  the  cost  of  actual  plant -food  is  taken  into 
consideration,  the  increase  in  crop  may  be  secured 
at  a  lower  cost  with  the  artificial  than  with  the 
natural  manures.  A  primary  consideration  is  that 
the  land  shall  be  in  good  tilth,  and  the  preparation 
and  cultivation  made  as  previously  recommended; 
and  there  should  be  an  occasional  application  of 
lime, — at  least  once  in  five  years, — at  the  rate  of 
twenty- five  bushels  per  acre.  This  general  prac- 
tice will  greatly  improve  the  soil  in  physical  char- 
acter, and  prevent  to  a  large  extent  the  compacting 
which  would  be  likely  to  follow  a  continuous  use 
of  chemical  fertilizers,  without  the  direct  addition 
of  vegetable  matter.  Under  these  conditions  the 
following  recommendations  as  to  fertilizers  are 
made.  In  summer,  while  the  land  is  being  pre- 
pared, a  few  days  previous  to  seeding,  apply 
broadcast  a  fertilizer  rich  in  minerals,  as 

Ground  bone 150  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 600  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 250  pounds 

This  mixture  should  be  applied   broadcast  at  the 
rate  of  300  to  500  pounds  per  acre;  and  at  time  of 


202  FORAGE    CROPS 

seeding  a  further  application  should  be  made  of 
300  pounds  per  acre  of  a  commercial  fertilizer, 
containing 

Nitrogen 3  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 6  per  cent 

Potash 5  per  cent 

This  will  ensure  an  abundance  of  the  mineral 
elements,  and  sufficient  nitrogen  to  supply  the 
immediate  needs  of  the  plant  and  to  encourage  a 
vigorous  growth  in  the  fall.  If  the  land  is  in  good 
condition,  and  the  plants  winter  well,  a  top-dress- 
ing on  the  first  cutting  is  not  usually  required, 
although,  in  order  to  ensure  a  good  second  crop 
or  aftermath,  it  is  desirable  that  the  top-dressing 
be  made  after  the  first  crop  is  removed,  preferably 
of  the  formula  mentioned  for  seeding  down,  at  the 
rate  of  300  to  400  pounds  per  acre.  The  second 
season,  the  crop  is  likely  to  be  made  up  largely  of 
timothy  and  red -top,  the  clovers  having  disap- 
peared, and  a  top-dressing  should  then  be  made 
early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  grass  has  well 
started,  of  a  fertilizer  rich  in  available  nitrogen, 
in  order  that  the  plant  may  have  a  nitrogenous 
food  that  it  can  appropriate  rapidly  when  it  needs. 
Therefore,  a  mixture  of 

Nitrate  of  soda 500  pounds 

Ground  bone 200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 200  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 100  pounds 


MIXED   MEADOWS  203 

may  be  applied  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  200  to 
300  pounds  per  acre.  This  will  stimulate  and 
strengthen  any  weak  plants,  and  provide  all  plants 
with  the  nitrates,  so  essential  at  this  season  of  the 
year. 

To  ensure  a  large  second  crop  of  forage,  imme- 
diately after  the  first  crop  is  removed  a  further 
application  of  the  top -dresser  formula  should  be 
made,  and  at  the  same  rate.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  if  a  rapid  and  large  growth  of  succulent 
food  is  to  be  secured,  the  plants  must  be  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  all  the  essential  constituent 
elements;  and  since  the  crop  is  one  that  does  not 
have  to  be  reseeded  annually,  a  very  considerable 
increase  in  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer  may  be  allowed 
in  lieu  of  the  preparation  and  re-seeding  that  would 
be  necessary  if  not  abundantly  fed  and  if  weeds 
and  foreign  growths  had  encroached. 

While  the  amount  of  fertilizer  recommended 
may  seem  large  to  the  farmer  accustomed  to 
extensive  practice,  trials  at  a  number  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  notably,  Rhode  Island  (Bulletin 
No.  99,  "A  Six- Year  "Rotation  of  Crops"),  and 
the  experience  of  growers,  notably  George  E. 
Clark,  Higganum,  Conn.,  show  that  if  large  yields 
of  hay  or  forage  (from  four  to  six  tons  of  the  former 
per  acre  per  year)  are  to  be  secured,  this  liberal 
use  of  fertilizers  is  desirable,  for  the  profits  are 
greater.    The  Rhode   Island    Experiment    Station 


204  FORAGE   CROPS 

finds  to  be  profitable  an  annual  application  of 
1,050  pounds  per  acre  of  a  mixture  of 

Nitrate  of  soda      350  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 500  pounds 

Clark  recommends,  for  seeding  down,  an  annual 
application  of  400  to  800  pounds  per  acre  of  a 
mixture  of 

Ground  bone 1,000  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 800  pounds 

Nitrate  of  soda 200  pounds 

and  two  top -dressings  of  200  to  300  pounds  each 
of  an  equal  mixture  of  ground  bone,  muriate  of 
potash  and  nitrate  of  soda.  These  larger  applica- 
tions, however,  assume  a  much  more  thorough 
preparation  of  land  previous  to  seeding  than  is 
outlined  here. 


Values  of  mixed  forage  crops 

A  crop  of  mixed  grasses  and  clovers  is  useful 
for  green  forage  from  about  June  20  to  July  10, 
according  to  the  locality  and  season.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  palatable  and  useful  of  our  forage 
crops,  making  a  well-balanced  ration  in  itself, 
and  producing  a  relatively  large  yield  of  dry 
matter. 


MIXED   MEADOWS  207 


Composition  and  Yield  of  Nutrients  of  Mixed  Grasses 
and  Clover  Forage 


One  ton 


An  average 


contains  co„ta,ns 


acre-yield 
contains 
Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 75.00  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 25.00  500.0  4,000.0 

Ether  extract 0.75  15.0  120.0 

Crude  fiber 7.95  159.0  1,272.0 

Protein 2.89  57.8  462.4 

Ash 1-57  31.4  251.2 

Nitrogen -free  extract     ....  11.85  237.0  1,896.0 

A  good  first  crop  of  mixed  grasses  and  clovers 
will  yield,  on  the  average,  about  eight  tons  per 
acre  of  a  product  relatively  rich  in  protein, 
and  of  a  highly  digestible  character.  The  second 
crop  will  range  from  four  to  six  tons,  depending 
on  the  season.  If  the  clovers  are  abundant,  the 
second  crop  will  be  richer  in  protein  than  the 
first  cutting.  The  yield  of  digestible  nutrients 
from  an  acre  of  this  crop  will  compare  fav- 
orably with  that  of  any  other  crop  of  this  class, 
and  it  will  be  well  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
Owing  to  the  high  content  of  dry  matter  in  the 
various  grasses,  the  usual  quantity  used,— fifty 
pounds  per  day,— will  supply  a  larger  portion  of 
nutrients  than  is  furnished  by  the  same  quantity  of 
rye  or  wheat,  and  thus  reduce  the  amounts  of  fine 
feeds  required,  a  very  important  matter  in  most 
cases. 

For  hay  suitable  for  the  dairy,  these  mixtures 


208  FORAGti   CROPS 

are  very  superior.  Yields  have  been  secured,  under 
good  conditions,  ranging  from  three  to  four  tons 
per  acre  from  the  first  cutting,  and  frequently  one 
ton  and  a  half  in  the  second  cutting,  making  it 
also  a  very  profitable  crop  from  the  standpoint  of 
supply  of  nutrients.  It  is  not  recommended  that 
fields  that  are  intended  to  serve  as  hay  should  be 
pastured,  although  the  pasture  is  of  excellent 
quality. 

If  made  into  hay  for  use  on  the  farm,  the  crop 
should  be  cut  before  it  matures,  if  the  largest 
quantity  of  highly  palatable  and  digestible  dry 
matter  is  to  be  obtained.  When  the  plants  are  in 
blossom,  or  immediately  after, — if  there  is  a  large 
proportion  of  the  grasses, —  may  be  regarded  as 
the  best  time  to  cut  under  average  conditions.  The 
plants  harden  rapidly  after  this  period,  increasing 
proportionately  the  indigestible  woody  fiber  and 
decreasing  the  digestible  protein.  Timothy  grown 
for  market  purposes  may  be  cut  at  a  later  period, 
for  market  conditions  demand  well  -  matured, 
though  not  over-ripe  hay,  and  increased  yields 
are  secured  if  cut  at  this  later  period. 


CHAPTER   XII 
ALFALFA 

The  leguminous  forage  plants  may  be  classed 
into  three  groups:  perennials,  biennials,  annuals. 
Of  the  perennials,  the  plant  most  useful  for  for- 
age, and  the  one  that  occupies  the  relative  posi- 
tion among  the  legumes  that  corn  does  among  the 
cereals,  is  alfalfa,  although  it  differs  from  corn  in 
having  a  more  restricted  habitat  or  adaptability, 
not  so  readily  conforming  to  a  wide  range  of  soils, 
climate  or  conditions  of  growth.  It  should  be 
said,  however,  that  alfalfa  has  not  yet  received  the 
careful  attention  that  its  merits  warrant,  and  the 
chances  are  that  a  wider  study  of  the  plant  will 
show  that  it  is  adapted  to  conditions  which  are  not 
now  thought  to  be  satisfactory.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty in  the  growing  of  the  plant  thus  far,  particu- 
larly in  the  eastern  and  middle  western  states,  is 
in  securing  and  maintaining  a  good  "stand." 

Alfalfa  is  not  a  new  plant.  It  has  been  culti- 
vated in  Europe  for  nearly  two  thousand  years, 
and  is  well  known  in  both  North  and  South 
America.  It  was  introduced  into  California  from 
Chili  nearly  fifty  years  ago,  and  its  use  has  gradu- 
ally spread  eastward.    Long  before  this,  however, 

N  (209) 


210  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

it  had  been  introduced  into  New  York  from 
Europe.  It  is  now  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
important  forage-crop  plants  in  those  states  where 
irrigation  is  practiced.  About  fifteen  years  ago,  it 
was  found  that  it  could  be  successfully  established 
in  those  states  where  there  is  shortage  of  rainfall, 
but  where  irrigation  is  not  practiced,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  Kansas,  in  which  state  the  area  in 
alfalfa  has  rapidly  increased  and  where  it  is  now 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  forage 
crops.  It  has  also  been  the  subject  of  experiment 
in  many  of  the  eastern  and  middle  states,  notably 
New  York,  New  Jersey  and  Maryland,  and  the 
results  secured  in  recent  years  show  that  with 
proper  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  land  for 
seeding,  and  in  subsequent  management,  it  may 
be  profitably  grown.  In  many  parts  of  the  eastern 
states  it  is  now  an  established  forage  crop. 

Once  well  established  the  plant  will  last  a  num- 
ber of  years,  from  four  to  ten  or  more,  depending 
on  the  character  of  the  land,  the  treatment  in  ref- 
erence to  manuring,  methods  of  cutting,  and  free- 
dom from  weeds  and  grass.  The  annual  upright, 
branching  stems  do  not  sprout  when  cut,  but  die 
back  to  the  crown,  when  new  shoots  start  and 
grow  rapidly.  The  roots  extend  much  deeper  than 
those  of  most  plants,  sometimes  reaching  a  depth 
of  twelve  feet  or  more,  under  favorable  conditions. 
For  this  reason  alfalfa  should  not  be  grown  per- 


LAND    FOB   ALFALFA  211 

manently  in  orchards,  as  its  deep  roots  are  liable  to 
injure  those  of  the  trees.  It  is  often  able  to  adapt 
itself,  however,  to  soils  in  which  the  roots  cannot 
extend  very  deep. 

Land,  and  its  preparation 

Alfalfa  grows  well  on  varying  kinds  of  land, 
providing  the  subsoil  is  open  and  porous.  The 
most  favorable  land  is  a  rich,  somewhat  sandy 
loam,  warm  and  friable,  with  a  deep  and  loose  or 
gravelly  subsoil,  well  supplied  with  lime.  A  dense 
clay  or  hardpan  subsoil  is  most  unfavorable.  Al- 
though rich  land  is  preferable,  alfalfa  does  well  on 
poor,  well-drained  gravelly  soils  if  well  provided 
with  the  mineral  elements,  as  phosphoric  acid, 
potash  and  lime.  While  the  plant  requires  much 
water,  it  will  not  flourish  where  the  water-level  is 
too  near  the  surface,  say  nearer  than  eighteen 
inches,  or  when  the  ground  is  saturated,  or  where, 
when  flooded,  the  water  stands  more  than  two  or 
three  days.    Acid  lands  are  uncongenial. 

The  field  intended  for  alfalfa  should  be  treated 
the  season  preceding  so  as  most  effectually  to 
subdue  all  weeds  and  cause  the  sprouting  and 
destruction  of  any  weed  seed  in  the  ground.  Farm- 
yard manure  should  preferably  not  be  used  for  at 
least  one  year  before  seeding,  as  it  favors  the 
growth  of  weeds. 


212  FORAGE   CROPS 

Owing  to  the  practically  permanent  character 
of  alfalfa,  it  will  well  repay  the  expense  of  careful 
and  thorough  preparation  of  the  land.  This  is  very 
important  in  order  to  secure  a  good  "stand."  If 
the  subsoil  is  hard  and  compact,  the  subsoil  plow 
should  be  used.  If  a  piece  of  sod  land  is  to  be 
converted  into  an  alfalfa  field,  it  should  be  plowed 
and  planted  with  some  cultivated  crop  the  first 
year  or  two,  in  order  to  put  the  soil  into  good 
physical  condition  as  well  as  to  destroy  all  tufts 
of  grasses  which  may  spread,  as  grass  is  the  worst 
enemy  of  alfalfa.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  soil 
somewhat  compact  for  the  seed,  and  therefore,  it 
is  better  not  to  sow  alfalfa  on  new-plowed  ground. 
Plowing  should  be  completed  as  long  before  sow- 
ing as  possible,  and  the  land  should  be  rolled  to 
compact  it,  and  afterward  lightly  harrowed  to 
leave  the  surface  finely  pulverized,  and  to  prevent 
loss  of  moisture. 


Manures  and  fertilizers 

Alfalfa  is  a  heavy  feeder,  and  will  not  thrive  on 
lands  deficient  in  plant-food.  It  is  especially  de- 
sirable that  the  soil  contain  abundance  of  lime, 
both  in  order  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  plant  and 
to  correct  any  possible  acidity,  for,  as  already 
stated,  acid  soils  are  unfavorable  for  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  organisms  that  are  neces- 


214  FORAGE   CHOPS 

sary  to  enable  the  plant  to  gather  the  atmospheric 
soil  nitrogen. 

The  fertilizers  should  contain  chiefly  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid,  and,  although  alfalfa  is  capable 
of  obtaining  atmospheric  nitrogen,  it  responds 
quickly  to  applications  of  nitrogenous  manures, 
particularly  in  its  early  growth.  The  lime  and 
fertilizers  should  be  spread  broadcast  and  har- 
rowed in  previous  to  seeding.  The  lime  should  be 
applied,  when  possible,  to  the  preceding  crop,  in 
order  to  ensure  its  thorough  distribution  and  in- 
corporation with  the  soil.  The  following  applica- 
tions per  acre  are  recommended  in  the  East,  even 
on  good  lands: 

First  year,  before  seeding,  thirty-five  bushels  of 
stone  lime  and  a  mixture  containing  3  per  cent  ni- 
trogen, 10  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid  and  5 
per  cent  potash,  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  per  acre. 
When  there  is  a  known  deficiency  in  mineral 
elements,  as  in  sandy  soils,  these  fertilizers  may 
be  reinforced  with  ground  phosphate  rock  or  bone, 
or  kainit,  and  plowed  in.  In  the  fall  or  early 
winter  a  top-dressing  with  fine  manure  is  good,  if 
free  from  weed  or  grass  seed.  The  latter  point 
is  important,  as  weeds  will  crowd  out  the  alfalfa. 
The  fertilizers  should  be  applied  just  previous  to 
seeding,  and  well  worked  into  the  surface.  The 
manure  should  be  applied  late  in  the  fall  after 
cutting  has  ceased;  it  should  be  fine,  and  evenly 


FERTILIZING   ALFALFA    FIELDS  215 

spread;  it  will  prove  serviceable  both  in  protect  ing 
the  plants  and  in  furnishing  plant-food  that  may 
be  well  distributed  in  the  soil  by  fall  and  winter 
rains. 

Second  and  succeeding  years,  a  top-dressing  is 
recommended  of  eight  to  ten  tons  of  manure,  and 
an  application  of  fertilizers  supplying  about  twenty 
pounds  of  available  phosphoric  acid  and  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  potash,  which  may  preferably  be 
obtained  from  150  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and 
fifty  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre.  The 
fertilizers  may  be  broadcasted,  preferably  after  the 
first  cutting  in  spring,  or  previous  to  the  last  cut- 
ting in  fall,  and  the  manure  applied  as  recom- 
mended for  the  first  year. 

In  regions  where  alfalfa  is  new,  the  laud  should 
be  inoculated.  There  is  but  one  practical  way  1<> 
do  this, — by  the  use  of  soil  from  an  established 
alfalfa  field,  or  from  a  patch  of  sweet  clover 
(melilotus).  The  same  bacteria  inhabit  each  of 
these  plants.  It  does  not  matter  how  much  soil 
is  used,  so  long  as  it  is  fine  and  is  scattered  over 
the  field  and  harrowed  in  before  sunlight  destroys 
the  germs.  As  little  as  200  pounds  will  inoculate 
an  acre,  and  a  ton  of  earth  has  been  used  with 
good  results.  Even  and  thorough  distribution  of  the 
inoculated  soil  is  readily  accomplished  by  sowing  it 
on  the  land  just  after  plowing,  the  tillage  required 
in  seeding  ensuring  the  complete  distribution. 


216  FORAGE    CROPS 

Seed  and  seeding 

Pure  seed  is  essential,— only  that  which  is 
bright,  plump  and  clean.  Dodder  is  a  parasitic 
plant,  that  twines  about  the  alfalfa  and  thrives 
on  its  juices.  Dodder  seed  may  come  with  alfalfa 
seed.  The  alfalfa  seed  ought  always  to  be  re- 
cleaned  to  free  it  from  this  parasite.  There  is  no 
remedy  for  dodder  when  once  established  in  a  field 
except  to  plow  up  the  infested  patch.  Alfalfa  seed 
resembles  that  of  red  clover,  but  is  larger  and, 
when  fresh,  has  a  greenish  yellow  color. 

It  is  sometimes  recommended  to  sow  clover  with 
alfalfa;  this  is  a  doubtful  practice  as,  when  the 
clover  disappears,  it  will  leave  an  uneven  and  too 
thin  stand  of  alfalfa,  although  it  is  good  practice 
to  seed  a  little  alfalfa  with  clover  and  timothy,  on 
land  intended  for  alfalfa  later. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that,  in  order  to 
secure  a  good  stand,  it  is  best  to  sow  thirty  to 
thirty-five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  broadcast,  and  covered  by  a  very 
light  harrow  or  weeder,  and  lightly  rolled.  If 
seeded  in  spring,  the  last  of  April  or  the  first  of 
May  is  preferable  in  the  northern  states,  and  with- 
out any  protecting  or  nurse-crop. 

In  the  North,  notably  in  Wisconsin,  alfalfa  is 
seeded  in  spring,  using  a  nurse -crop  of  oats  or 
barley.     The   best  nurse -crop  is  beardless  spring 


SOWING   ALFALFA  217 

barley.  This  is  not  the  heaviest-yielding  barley, 
bat  it  is  the  best  nurse-crop  yet  found  for  alfalfa, 
because  it  usually  does  not  lodge,  does  not  stool 
very  much,  nor  shade  the  land  too  much,  and  it 
comes  off  early  in  the  season.  The  purpose  of 
using  a  nurse -crop  is  to  discourage  the  growth 
of  fox-tail  and  other  annual  grasses  until  the 
alfalfa  can  get  a  start.  It  is  very  unsafe  to  sow 
alfalfa  alone  early  in  spring,  because  of  the  dan- 
ger of  its  being  choked  with  grasses.  One  can 
get  a  much  more  satisfactory  stand  with  the 
barley  than  when  sown  alone.  A  bushel  to  the 
acre  will  be  enough  barley,  although  more  may 
be  used.  It  is  best  to  sow  with  a  drill,  sowing 
the  alfalfa  seed  at  the  rate  of  about  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  per  acre  in  front  of  the  drill.  The 
land  should  have  been  first  deeply  plowed,  and 
early  enough  in  the  season,  if  possible,  to  let  it 
settle  together,  then  worked  to  a  good  seed-bed 
just  before  sowing.  The  time  of  sowing  should 
be  as  early  as  the  danger  of  hard  freezing  is 
past,  say  the  middle  of  April  for  the  40th  par- 
allel, earlier  to  the  south,  and  later  to  the  north. 
Oats  as  a  nurse-crop  are  not  nearly  so  safe  as 
barley,  yet  they  may  be  used.  No  more  than  a 
bushel  of  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  The 
oats  must  be  cut  for  hay  just  when  coming  in 
bloom.  If  cutting  is  postponed  until  grain  is 
formed,  half  or  more  of  the  alfalfa  will  be  killed. 


218  FORAGE   CROPS 

If  the  oats  lodge,  cut  them  for  hay  the  next  day. 
Oat  hay  is  a  good  thing  to  have,  if  it  is  properly 
cured.  When  barley  seed  is  not  available,  oats 
may  be  used  with  good  results,  if  care  is  taken 
to  mow  on  time. 

After  the  nurse -crop  is  cut  away,  let  the  alfalfa 
alone.  It  will  start  into  growth  promptly,  and 
if  the  soil  is  fertile  and  well  inoculated,  the  crop 
will  make  rapid  growth  for  a  time,  usually  for 
about  fifty  days.  As  long  as  it  continues  to  grow 
thriftily,  do  not  cut.  If  a  rust  appears,  it  should 
be  clipped  close,  which  will  check  or  destroy  the 
disease. 

Unless  seeded,  early  alfalfa  ordinarily  will  not 
make  sufficient  growth  before  midsummer  to  with- 
stand the  weeds  and  drought.  Where  the  winters 
are  not  too  severe,  the  trouble  with  weeds  may  be 
avoided  by  seeding  the  last  of  August  or  after 
danger  of  crab-grass  is  passed;  when  seeded  at 
this  season  the  weeds  are  not  likely  to  take  posses- 
sion during  the  fall  and  sufficient  growth  will  be 
made  to  enable  the  plants  to  withstand  the  winter. 
The  crop  from  late  summer  seeding  should  not  be 
cut  the  first  fall,  even  though  a  considerable  stand 
is  secured,  but  left  as  a  protection  in  winter. 
There  will  be  no  danger  of  smothering,  as  the 
plants  will  usually  stand  erect  rather  than  go  down. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  seed  is  not  put 
in  too  deep  —  this  is  very  important  and  is  often 


SOWING  ALFALFA  219 

the  cause  of  failure.  The  depth  may  vary  some- 
what with  the  kind  of  soil,  but  in  general,  if 
planted  more  than  three  inches  deep,  there  is 
danger  that  the  germinating  plant  will  not  be  able 
to  reach  the  surface.  One-half  to  two  inches  are 
about  the  extremes. 

Another  point  of  importance,  as  already  stated, 
is  that  the  soil  should  be  packed  around  the  seed. 
Many  failures  to  secure  a  stand  of  alfalfa  are  trace- 
able to  sowing  the  seed  broadcast  on  new -plowed 
ground,  and  then  to  harrow,  mixing  the  seed 
loosely  with  the  surface  soil,  but  not  compacting 
it  thereafter  by  means  of  a  roller.  Under  favor- 
able conditions  of  soil  and  moisture  the  plant 
might  survive,  but  it  is  safer  to  compact  the  soil 
and  then  go  over  it  with  a  light  harrow  or  weeder, 
loosening  the  immediate  surface. 

Subsequent  treatment 

The  growth  of  weeds  in  spring  seedings  should 
be  checked  early  by  mowing,  and  as  soon  as  the 
weeds  are  large  enough  to  be  clipped.  By  slightly 
raising  the  cutter-bar,  the  mowing  machine  can  be 
used.  If  the  crop  of  clippings  is  not  too  heavy,  it 
maybe  left  on  the  field  and  will  serve  as  a  mulch  for 
the  dry  weather.  This  destruction  of  weeds  in  the 
early  growth  is  very  important,  and  frequent  cutting 
is  helpful,  also,  in  establishing  the  young  plants. 


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CUTTING    THE    ALFALFA  22] 

Before  clipping,  however,  examine  the  little 
alfalfa  plants  to  see  whether  buds  have  started 
near  the  ground.  If  these  buds  are  just  burst- 
ing into  leaf,  clip  the  alfalfa  at  once.  Do  not 
clip  it  before  the  buds  start.  Do  not  cut  the 
alfalfa  for  hay  or  any  other  purpose  before  these 
buds  have  formed  close  to  the  earth.  To  cut  it 
before  the  buds  appear  may  very  seriously  set  it 
back,  and  may  possibly  kill  young  alfalfa.  To 
leave  alfalfa  uncut  will  also  very  seriously  weaken 
it,  and  may  result  in  its  death.  However,  the 
first  season  it  should  be  permitted  to  grow  as 
long  as  it  is  vigorous.  There  should  always  be 
left  a  growth  of  at  least  a  foot  to  protect  the 
crowns  in  winter. 

Alfalfa  should  be  cut  when  about  one-quarter 
of  the  plants  are  in  blossom,  whether  the  growth 
is  short  or  tall,  unless  a  seed-crop  is  desired.  If 
left  until  fully  blossomed,  the  quality  of  the  prod- 
uct is  reduced;  besides,  the  plants  are  injured  and 
subsequent  crops  are  smaller.  On  rich  lands,  two 
crops  are  sometimes  secured  the  first  summer 
from  spring  seeding,  but  on  poor  lands  or  in  a 
dry  season,  no  crop  can  be  expected  until  the 
second  year. 

Yield  of  alfalfa 

The  yield  on  established  fields  will  vary  accord- 
ing   to   the   character   of   the    land,    thickness   of 


222  FOE  AGE    CROPS 

stand  and  method  of  treatment.  It  ranges  from 
ten  to  twenty-six  tons  per  acre  green  forage  for  all 
cuttings,  or  an  equivalent  in  dry  hay  of  two  to  six 
or  more  tons.  The  larger  yield  is  readily  obtained 
on  good  lands. 

Alfalfa  is  a  gross  feeder,  particularly  on  the 
mineral  elements,  and  a  large  producer,  and  is 
sometimes  considered  as  an  exhausting  crop.  This 
is  a  mistaken  idea;  it  should  rather  be  looked  on 
as  a  crop  fulfilling  the  proper  aim  of  rational  agri- 
culture, which  is  most  perfectly  to  transform  into 
products  the  raw  materials  at  disposal  in  atmos- 
phere and  soil. 

The  chemical  composition  of  alfalfa 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of 
five  different  cuttings  from  established  fields  at  the 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  farm,  as  well  as 
the  composition  of  the  hay  when  ready  to  put  in 
the  barn  to  be  fed.  These  analyses,  which  are 
representative,  show  the  variations  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  different  cuttings  in  the  green  state,  all 
samples  representing  the  crop  cut  when  first  blos- 
soms appeared  or  just  before  blossoming,  as  well 
as  the  changes  that  were  caused  by  handling,  curing 
and  storing.  The  composition  of  the  different  cuts 
will  vary  with  the  time  of  cutting  and  character  of 
season.    The  crude  fiber  increases  with  maturity: 


COMPOSITION   OF   ALFALFA  223 

Composition  of  the  Crops  of  the  Different  Cuttings 
of  Alfalfa 

■ Pounds  per  hundred  of , 

c 

*  S=s  -St,  ~  «  -c  oS  5  «n 

«        ,a  £  sS       5  s  §  rj       a  ah       ^3 

First  cut 83.00  0.67  4.56  3. 05  1.92  6.20  2.62 

Second  cut  .    .    .    .  76.63  1.02  7.83  4.07  2.25  8  20  2.85 

Third  cut     ....  74.10  1.07  6.58  4.52  2.17  11.56  3.60 

Fourth  cut   .    .    .    .60.71  1.10  7.07  5.43  2.67  14.02  4.06 

Fifth  cut SI. 77  1.13  3.20  4.50  2.07  7.33  3.27 

Hay,  when  stored  .  18.66  3.19  24.11  13.87  7.44  32.73  11.45 

Hay,  after  storage.    9  56  3.36  31.07  13.24  8.64  34.13  10.78 

Water-free  Basis 

First  cut 3.94  26. SI  21.46  11.29  36.35  15.14 

Second  cut 4.36  33.51  17.42  9  63  35.10  12  20 

Third  cut 4.13  25.40  17.45  S.3S  44.62  13.90 

Fourth  cut 3.03  23.33  17.92  8  si  46.27  13.40 

Fifth  cut 6.19  17.54  24.66  11.34  40.17  17.92 

Hay 3.92  29.63  17.05  9.14  40  23  14.07 

Hay 3.71  34.33  14.63  9.55  37  71  11.91 

The  chief  point  of  difference  between  the  com- 
position of  the  samples  of  the  green  forage  is  in 
percentage  of  moisture,  the  samples  representing 
the  first  and  last  cuttings  showing  a  much  higher 
content  of  water  than  those  of  the  cuttings  made 
in  midsummer.  The  composition  of  the  dry 
matter,  however,  shows  the  true  differences.  The 
first  and  fifth  cuttings  show  a  much  higher  per- 
centage of  protein  and  ash,  indicating  a  higher 
feeding  value  and  that  they  were  not  so  fully  ma- 
tured as  the  others,  although  the  different  cuttings 


224  FORAGE    CHOPS 

were  made  when  the  crop  had  apparently  reached 
the  same  stage  of  growth. 

The  exact  amount  of  nutrients  contained  in  each 
cutting  has  been  calculated  in  the  accompany- 
ing table,  together  with  the  yields  per  acre: 

The  Nutrients  Contained  in  the  Yields  Obtained  in  the 
Different  Cuttings  on  One  Acre 

2       SI        Si  IS  II  St        111 

Tons  Lbs.         Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.             Lbs.  Lbs. 

First  cut  .    9.00  3,060  120.6  820.4  657.0  345.6  1,116.0 

Second  cut    7.73  3,613  134.5  1,113.1  629.2  347.9  1,388.3 

Thirdcut.    4.89  2,533  J04.6  642.5  442.1  212.2  1,130.6 

Fourth  cut   2.75  1,666       60.5  388.9  298.7  146.9  771.1 

Fifth  cut  .    2.23  913       50.4  142.7  300.7          92.3  326.9 


Total  .  .  26.60  11,785  470.6  3,107.6  2,327.7  1,144.9  4,732.9 
Hay  from 

second  cut  2.21  3,595  141.0  1,065.7  613.1  328.8  1,446.7 
Hay  after 

storage    .    2.00    3,617     134.4     1,242.8        529.6        345.6     1,365.2 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  largest  quantity  of 
dry  matter  was  secured  in  the  second  cutting,  al- 
though the  largest  amount  of  protein  was  secured 
in  the  first  cutting.  There  was  a  loss  of  moisture 
and  a  change  in  relative  composition  of  the  hay  in 
curing,  although  the  changes  were  not  serious, 
and  were  rather  evenly  distributed  throughout  the 
various  groups  of  nutrients;  whereas  the  losses 
incurred  in  storing  were  considerable,  aside  from 
the  moisture,  and  were  particularly  noticeable  in 


COMPOSITION   OF   ALFALFA  225 

the  loss  of  protein,  which  resulted  in  a  considerable 
relative  gain  in  the  amount  of  fiber.  This  storage 
loss  was  to  be  expected,  as  the  chief  losses  were 
probably  mechanical,  due  to  the  shattering  of  the 
leaves,  which  are  richer  in  protein  and  poorer  in 
fiber  than  the  stems.  The  chief  point  of  interest  is 
the  very  large  quantity  of  dry  matter  obtained  in 
the  year's  growth,  nearly  six  tons,  and  the  large 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  substance,  or  crude  pro- 
tein, contained  in  it  (2,327.7  pounds)  equivalent 
to  that  in  about  7.5  tons  of  wheat  bran. 

Variations  will  occur  in  samples  from  differenl 
fields  and  in  different  years,  but  it  is  thought  that 
the  analyses  given  here  fairly  represent  what  may 
be  expected  as  to  variations  in  the  composition  of 
the  different  cuttings,  and  the  losses  that  occur 
in  handling  when  made  and  stored  as  hay. 

Alfalfa  as  a  soiling  crop 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  soiling 
crops,  because  it  is  ready  for  use  early  in  the 
year,  and  because  three  to  four  cuttings  may  be 
had  each  year.  In  the  East,  the  first  cutting  is 
ready  about  the  latter  part  of  May  or  first  of  June, 
the  second,  usually  within  a  month  or  five  weeks, 
and  the  third  and  fourth  usually  four  to  six  weeks 
after  cutting  the  preceding  crop.  It  possesses 
more   nearly  than  any  other  crop  the  very  great 


226  FOE  AGE    CEOPS 

advantage  of  furnishing  a  practically  continuous 
supply  of  forage  during  the  growing  season.  That 
this  may  be  accomplished,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
large  part  of  the  crop  shall  be  cut  either  too  early 
or  too  late;  therefore  it  is  desirable  to  have  other 
forage  crops  if  the  very  best  results  are  to  be 
reached.  Care  should  be  exercised  when  using  it 
for  soiling,  particularly  in  the  early  cuttings,  as 
animals  are  very  fond  of  it  and  are  likely  to  eat 
so  much  as  to  cause  bloating.  Animals  have  been 
soiled,  with  success,  at  the  New  Jersey  Experi- 
ment Station  for  the  past  eight  years,  and  no  trouble 
has  been  encountered,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  animals,  previous  to  feeding  on  alfalfa,  have 
been  supplied  with  other  succulent  forage,  and  the 
quantities  have  been  adjusted  so  that  there  should 
not  be  an  excess  for  any  one  animal.  In  the  early 
cuttings,  from  thirty-five  to  forty  pounds  per  day 
usually  are  fed,  gradually  increasing  to  fifty 
pounds  on  the  third  day  after  beginning.  After 
once  started  in  this  way,  there  is  no  danger,  and 
ouly  favorable  results  are  likely  to  follow. 

Another  peculiar  advantage  of  the  soiling  for- 
age is  its  richness  in  digestible  protein;  fifty 
pounds  of  the  green  forage  will  furnish  very  nearly 
two  pounds  of  digestible  protein.  Therefore,  the 
feeds  used  with  alfalfa  should  contain  more  car- 
bohydrates than  are  usually  fed  with  forage.  A 
mixture  of  feeds  that  would   make  a  good  ration 


228  FORAGE    CHOPS 

with  fifty  pounds  of  alfalfa  per  day  may  consist 
of  about  six  pounds  per  day  of  a  mixture  of  three 
pounds  each  of  wheat  bran,  dried  brewers'  grains 
and  corn  meal.  When  large  quantities  of  alfalfa 
are  available  as  forage,  the  quantity  used  per  day 
may  be  increased,  thus  reducing  the  necessity  for 
feeds;  and  such  feeds  as  are  used  may  be  richer 
in  carbohydrates,  as,  for  example,  corn  meal. 

Alfalfa  as  a  hay  crop 

When  desired  for  hay,  alfalfa  should  be  cut 
when  budded,  or  just  before  full  bloom,  as  it  con- 
tains more  nutriment  at  this  time;  besides,  it  is 
better  for  the  subsequent  crops  to  cut  the  plant 
before  it  is  in  full  bloom. 

The  value  of  the  hay  depends  much  on  the 
method  ov  care  used  in  curing  it.  Alfalfa  cannot 
be  cured  as  hay  is  usually  handled.  After  cut- 
ting, it  should  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the  swath  only 
long  enough  to  become  well  wilted,  when  it  should 
be  raked  into  windrows,  where  it  may  be  left  a 
few  hours  before  putting  into  cocks.  The  hay 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cocks  until 
practically  cured,  which  usually  requires  two  or 
three  days.  Then  it  may  be  thrown  out,  dried 
with  three  or  four  hours'  sun,  and  hauled  to  the 
barn  without  further  handling.  It  is  desirable  to 
use  hay  caps   in  unfavorable  weather,  as   water 


ALFALFA    EAT  229 

penetrates  alfalfa  cocks  very  readily,  which  injures 
the  feeding  value  and  causes  mechanical  losses.  In 
good  weather,  alfalfa  that  is  cut  in  the  morning 
may  be  raked  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day.  It 
should  not  be  left  long  enough  to  become  dry  and 
brittle,  or  many  of  the  leaves  will  shatter  in  raking, 
much  reducing  the  value  of  the  hay. 

In  experiments  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station,  it  was  shown  that  alfalfa  hay  may  be 
substituted  for  the  protein  feeds  generally  used, 
without  interfering  with  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  at  considerable  saving  in  the  cost  of 
the  ration,  although  the  yield  of  milk  was  not 
quite  so  high.  In  other  experiments,  when  cow- 
pea  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  were  used  as  the 
source  of  roughage  as  well  as  for  the  protein, 
and  corn  meal  used  to  supply  the  carbohydrates, 
the  yield  of  milk  was  greater  and  the  cost  per 
quart  much  lower  than  from  the  regular  barn 
ration,  in  which  the  source  of  protein,  was  such 
feed  products  as  dried  brewers'  grains  and  wheat 
bran.  In  other  words,  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  it  is  quite  possible,  with  the  judicious  use 
of  such  leguminous  crops  as  alfalfa  and  cowpeas, 
to  produce  all  the  needed  nutrients  on  the  farm, 
thus  saving  expensive  feed  bills  and  at  tin'  same 
time  enriching  the  soil  in  nitrogen.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  dairy  farmers  should  grow,  if  possible, 
a  few  acres  of  alfalfa  to  supply  part  of  the  green 


230  FORAGE   CHOPS 

forage  needed  for  summer  feeding,  and  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  protein  needed  to  balance  the 
silage  or  other  fodder  rations  of  the  winter. 


»& 


Alfalfa  as  pasture 

Alfalfa  may  also  be  safely  used  as  pasture  for 
horses  and  swine,  and  the  careful  farmer  who 
gives  the  subject  intelligent  personal  attention 
may  also  pasture  cattle  and  sheep  on  alfalfa  with 
success.  There  is  always  danger,  however,  of 
losing  animals  with  bloat,  and  pasturing,  especially 
with  sheep,  is  injurious  to  the  alfalfa  because  they 
eat  away  the  young  buds,  which  would  soon 
develop  into  new  branches.  The  younger  plants 
are  not  strong  enough  to  withstand  long- continued 
pasturing  the  first  year  after  sowing,  and  much 
tramping  is  injurious  at  any  time. 

Alfalfa  silage 

Alfalfa  can  be  successfully  made  into  silage, 
although,  in  common  with  other  plants  of  a 
highly  nitrogenous  character,  it  is  not  so  desir- 
able as  corn.  The  losses  are  likely  to  be  con- 
siderable, and  the  product  seems  to  be  less  pala- 
table than  corn  silage.  Nevertheless,  there  are 
many  circumstances  when  its  preservation  and 
use  as  silage  are  to  be  recommended. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
THE    CLOVERS 

The  true  clovers  all  belong  to  the  genus  or 
group  Trifolium,  of  which  there  are  many  spe- 
cies and  varieties  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
The  sweet  or  Bokhara  clover  is  a  Melilotus,  not 
sufficiently  grown  to  warrant  discussion  in  a 
brief  popular  book  like  this.  The  bur  clover  is 
a  Medicago,  allied  to  alfalfa.  Other  related  plants 
of  the  legume  family  are  sometimes  known  as 
clover,  but  they  need  not  be  described  here. 

There  are  four  types  of  true  clover  that  must 
be  discussed  in  any  American  book  on  forage 
plants:  (1)  red  clover  {Trifolium  pratense) ,  and 
mammoth  red  clover  (variety  perenne,  formerly 
but  improperly  called  Trifolium  medium)-,  (2) 
alsike  clover  (T.  liybridum) ;  (?>)  crimson  clover 
(T.  incarnatum) ;  (4)  white  clover  (T.  repots). 
All    these  clovers  are  natives  of   the  Old  World. 


THE     RED     CLOVERS 

It  has  been  well  said  that  red  clover  is  more 
valuable  among  fodder  plants  than  wheat  is 
among   cereals.     As    a    forage    crop,    it    has    no 

(231) 


232  FORAGE   CROPS 

superior,  all  things  considered.  Like  corn,  it  is 
adapted  to  a  wide  variety  of  soils,  and,  because 
of  its  habit  of  growth,  is  always  beneficial  when 
introduced  into  a  rotation,  aside  from  its  par- 
ticular value  as  a  forage  crop.  While  its  best 
use  for  most  purposes  is  in  connection  with 
other  clovers  and  grasses,  it  is  excellent  as  a 
green  forage  plant,  since  it  is  very  palatable 
and  contains  the  nutrients  in  such  proportions  as 
to  make  it  a  well-balanced  ration  in  itself,  thus 
serving  to  supplement  pastures,  as  well  as  to 
provide  an  excellent  dry  forage. 

While  it  may  persist  for  three  years,  in  prac- 
tice it  must  be  regarded  as  a  biennial,  the  length 
of  life  depending  largely  on  its  treatment  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  It  thrives  best  on  deep 
loamy  lands,  rich  in  humus,  where,  as  a  rule,  it 
stands  longer  than  on  light  lands,  although  it  is 
well  adapted  to  them  and  large  crops  are  obtained 
when  well  fertilized. 


Soils  and  manures 

Stiff  clays,  when  properly  tilled,  are  suitable 
for  red  clover,  although  they  should  be  well 
drained  to  avoid  any  standing  water.  Dry,  sandy 
or  hot  lands  are  unfavorable,  although  they  may 
be  very  materially  improved  by  liming  or  by  the 
use   of  marl.     On   loose   lands   and   heavy   clays, 


COMMON   HED    CLOVER  233 

clover  is  liable  to  be  uprooted  by  the  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing,  and  on  sandy  lands  it  suf- 
fers from  drought.  Like  alfalfa,  the  soil  must  be 
either  rich  in  lime,  or  this  substance  must  be 
applied,  for  it  is  a  heavy  feeder  on  lime,  as  well 
as  on  the  other  mineral  constituents.  The  very 
beneficial  effects  that  were  observed  from  the 
former  use  of  gypsum,  when  it  was  thought  that 
plaster  or  gypsum  was  a  specific  fertilizer  for 
clover  in  the  eastern  states,  is  now  considered 
to  be  due  to  the  power  that  gjTpsum  possesses 
of  setting  free  the  dormant  potash  of  the  soil. 
Therefore,  on  old  soils  from  which  the  potash  has 
been  to  some  extent  exhausted,  the  element  potas- 
sium should  be  applied  in  considerable  excess.  The 
very  beneficial  effect  of  wTood  ashes,  following 
the  use  of  gypsum,  also  verifies  this  conclusion, 
as  ashes  is  rich  in  both  of  the  constituents,  potash 
and  lime. 

As  clover  is  a  legume,  it  is  not  usually  bene- 
fited by  the  addition  of  nitrogenous  manures, 
except  in  the  early  stages  of  growth.  On  soils 
not  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter,  manures 
are  very  beneficial,  primarily  in  correcting  the 
deficiencies,  and  in  providing  a  more  favorable 
medium  for  the  development  of  the  specific  bac- 
teria. The  size  of  the  crop  will  be  measured  to 
some  extent,  also,  by  the  abundance  of  mineral 
elements,  thus  enabling  the  plant    to    employ  to 


234  FORAGE   CROPS 

full  advantage  its  capability  of  gathering  nitro- 
gen. In  many  cases,  particularly  on  soils  that 
are  likely  to  heave,  a  mulch  of  manure  is  very 
advantageous  as  a  protection. 

Methods  of  seeding  red  clover 

The  method  of  seeding  most  generally  prac- 
ticed is  to  sow  in  March  or  April,  on  wheat  or 
rye  (which  was  seeded  the  fall  previous),  when 
the  ground  is  still  moist,  and  danger  of  very 
heavy  freezing  is  past.  By  this  practice,  the  light 
freezing  and  subsequent  drying  of  the  soil  causes 
the  seed  to  be  covered,  and  it  will  then  germi- 
nate and  make  a  light  growth  previous  to  har- 
vesting. It  is  also  seeded  in  spring  with  oats  or 
barley;  this  is  a  common  practice  in  regions 
which  are  cool  and  moist,  as  in  many  of  the 
western  states. 

The  quantity  of  seed  ranges  from  eight  to 
twelve  pounds  per  acre.  The  plants  grow  rather 
feebly  until  the  grain  is  removed,  when  they 
usually  come  forward  rapidly,  sometimes  permit- 
ting a  fall  cutting,  but  in  any  case  they  make  a 
crop  the  following  year. 

Recently,  however,— especially  where  the  plant 
is  grown  primarily  for  forage  purposes,— the  seed- 
ing is  made  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  early 
September,  without  nurse -crop,  usually  following 


SEEDING    BED    CLO\'ER  2oO 

potatoes  or  some  other  hoed  crop.  When  seeded 
in  this  way,  the  land  should  be  very  carefully 
prepared,  and  the  surface  made  as  fine  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  that  germination  may  be  rapid 
and  complete,  as  well  as  to  provide  abundant 
food  near  the  surface. 

The  quantity  of  seed  in  this  case  is  about  six- 
teen pounds  per  acre  on  the  average.  On  poor 
lands,  more  seed  must  be  used.  If  seeding  is  too 
thick,  the  plants  are  liable  to  lodge  and  thus  be 
badly  injured  for  either  forage  or  hay.  When 
seeded  in  this  way,  the  seed  should  be  lightly  cov- 
ered, preferably  with  a  weeder,  and  on  light  lands 
rolled  with  a  light  roller.  In  ordinary  seasons,  the 
plants  will  make  considerable  growth  and  become 
well  rooted  before  winter,  and  the  crop  usually 
will  be  ready  to  harvest  as  early  in  the  next 
season  as  in  the  second  year  if  seeded  in  the  old 
way  with  grain. 

In  many  sections,  red  clover  is  used  as  a 
catch-crop  in  corn,  mainly  to  serve  as  a  spring 
pasture  and  in  preparation  of  the  land  for  wheat. 
This  practice  is  generally  not  suitable  when  the 
primary  purpose  is  to  make  soiling  crops  or 
hay.  In  the  eastern  and  central  western  states, 
the  crop  will  be  ready  to  harvest  about  the 
middle  of  June,  although  the  time  will  vary, 
depending  on  the  season;  if  dry  and  warm  the 
crop  will  mature  earlier  than  if  cold  and  wet. 


236  FOB  AGE    CBOPS 

Harvest,  yields  and  value 

If  used  primarily  for  soiling,  harvest  should 
begin  when  the  plant  is  fully  in  head,  and  it 
may  continue  until  many  of  the  heads  become 
brown.  This  period  will  range  from  ten  days  to 
two  weeks,  depending  on  the  soil  and  season. 

As  a  soiling  crop,  red  clover  should  be  fed 
with  care  at  first,  unless  the  animals  have  been 
accustomed  to  green  forage  of  other  kinds,  as 
they  are  extremely  fond  of  it,  and  there  is 
danger  that  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  bloat. 
When  they  have  been  regularly  fed  on  green  for- 
age, and  the  quantity  is  regulated,  no  danger 
need  be  apprehended  from  this  source,  and  the 
usual  amount  of  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  per  day 
may  be  used. 

With  a  good  stand  and  sufficient  moisture,  the 
yields  of  red  clover  will  range  from  six  to  ten  tons 
per  acre.  It  usually  pays  to  allow  it  to  stand  for 
the  second  crop,  which  is  also  quite  as  serviceable 
for  forage  as  the  first,  although  the  yield  is  smaller, 
—  four  to  six  tons  per  acre.  The  second  cutting  is 
usually  ready  in  early  August. 

Red  clover  varies  in  its  composition  according 
to  the  time  of  harvesting,  although  either  when 
cut  young,  or  allowed  practically  to  mature,  it  is 
much  richer  in  the  nitrogenous  compounds  than 
are  the  grasses,  but  not  so  rich  as  alfalfa.    The 


HAY   FROM    RED    CLOVER  >2'M 

average  composition  of  red  clover  forage   in  full 
blossom  is  as  follows: 

Clover,  An  average 

green  One  ton    acre-yield  Clover 

forage  contains    Cornishes  bay 

Percent  J. lis.              Lbs.  Percent 

Water 70.80  20.80 

Dry  matter 29.20  5S4         4,072  79.20 

Ether  extract 1.10  22            170  4.50 

Fiber 8.10  162         1,296  21.90 

Protein 4.40  88            704  12  40 

Ash 2.10  42         336  o.oo 

Nitrogen -free  extract     ....      13.50  270         2,100  33.80 


Red  clover  hay 

The  one  very  great  advantage  of  clover  as  forage 
is  that,  if  not  needed  as  a  supplementary  green 
food,  it  makes  good  hay.  Clover  hay  is  one  of  the 
best  kinds  for  dairy  purposes.  However,  it  is  liable 
to  considerable  loss  in  harvesting,  unless  great 
care  is  used,  owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
leaves  dry  and  to  their  tendency  to  fall  in  curing 
and  housing.  If  cut  when  about  one -third  of  the 
bloom  has  disappeared,  it  will  contain  very  much 
less  moisture  than  when  cut  earlier,  and  still 
retain  a  large  proportion  of  leaves  if  carefully 
handled. 

Clover  should  be  cut  when  free  from  dew  or 
other  moisture,  and  allowed  to  wilt,  then  raked 
into  windrows,  and  put  up  into  cocks  and  cured 
in  this  way,  rather  than  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the 


238  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

swath  until  dry.  Light  rains,  or  even  heavy  dews, 
will  change  the  green  leaves  to  dark  brown,  and 
make  them  crisp  and  readily  removed  by  handling ; 
they  will  also  extract  the  aroma  arising  from  the 
essential  oils,  which  is  so  important  in  making 
the  hay  palatable  and  attractive.  When  properly 
cured,  the  hay  will  have  about  the  composition 
noted  above,  and,  as  a  roughage  to  use  with  silage 
in  winter  feeding,  it  cannot  be  surpassed  except 
perhaps  by  alfalfa. 

The  high  content  of  protein  makes  clover  one  of 
the  best  plants  for  forage  purposes.  It  is  possible 
with  clover  alone  to  supply  all  the  needed  nutrients 
in  good  proportions  for  dairy  animals.  It  is  usually 
better,  however,  to  feed  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds 
and  to  supply  the  remainder  of  the  nutrients  from 
other  sources,  to  give  variety  to  the  ration. 

Pasturing  red  clover 

When  the  purpose  is  to  secure  the  best  yield 
of  forage,  it  is  not  desirable  to  pasture  red  clover, 
although  it  is  an  excellent  pasture  plant,  and  is 
well  liked  by  all  farm  stock.  The  tramping  of 
animals  will  soon  kill  many  of  the  stools,  injur- 
ing the  stand,  and  causing  a  smaller  yield  in  later 
cuttings.  Red  clover  is  an  important  constituent 
of  permanent  pastures,  generally  insuring  a  larger 
yield  the  first  season  than  grass  alone. 


PERENNIAL   RED    CLOVER  230 

Mammoth  red  clover 

This  resembles  the  common  red  clover,  but  is 
larger,  later  and  more  truly  perennial.  It  is  a 
great  forager.  The  stems  are  stout  and  coarse, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  not  so  desirable  for  hay;  but 
these  characteristics  do  not  impair  it  as  a  soiling 
crop.  The  preparation  of  soil  and  the  seeding 
may  be  similar  to  the  practice  recommended  for 
common  red  clover.  The  quantity  of  seed  should 
be  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per  acre,  according  to 
the  character  of  soil.  When  seeded  in  the  fall, 
the  crops  should  be  ready  for  the  first  cutting  by 
June  15.  Yields  are  usually  heavier  than  those  of 
the  common  red  clover.  A  good  average  yield  is 
ten  tons  of  forage  per  acre. 

Mammoth  clover  may  be  fed  as  recommended 
for  red  clover,  the  composition  not  materially  dif- 
fering, although,  unless  the  plant  has  reached  the 
full  blossom  stage,  it  is  likely  to  carry  less  dry 
matter;  therefore,  a  slightly  larger  proportion 
should  be  fed.  All  animals  are  fond  of  this  for- 
age, and  the  results  of  feeding  are  exceedingly 
satisfactory. 

If  the  land  is  good,  and  well  drained,  the  crop 
will  make  a  rapid  second  growth,  to  serve  for  for- 
age, or  for  pasture,  it  being  excellent  for  grazing. 

The  great  foraging  powers  of  this  planl  make 
it   exceedingly   valuable   as    a   soil-enricher.     The 


240  FORAGE   CROPS 

large  amounts  of  mineral  matter  from  the  lower 
layers  of  soil,  being  stored  in  the  roots  and  stems, 
will  greatly  improve  the  soil  for  subsequent  crops. 


ALSIKE   CLOVER 

Alsike  clover  is  more  perennial  than  red  clover, 
and  can  be  left  frequently  for  three  to  five  years. 
It  is  little  affected  by  extreme  seasons,  and  lands 
on  which  other  varieties  do  not  grow  may  produce 
an  abundant  harvest.  It  thrives  on  damp,  moist 
loams  and  clays,  on  lands  too  wet  for  other  clovers. 
It  is  very  hardy,  and  not  liable  to  be  uprooted  by 
late  frosts,  which  frequently  injure  the  red  clover. 

Alsike  clover  has  a  rather  superficial  root 
system;  therefore,  the  preparation  of  land  should 
be  very  thorough,  and  the  surface  layers  well 
enriched,  particularly  with  the  mineral  elements. 
Owing  to  its  somewhat  creeping  habit,  it  is  not 
well  adapted  to  seeding  alone;  as  the  stems  lie 
along  the  ground,  without  rooting,  the  remainder 
of  the  stem  ascending,  in  wet  seasons  it  is  liable 
to  lodge  badly,  and  the  lower  stems  to  rot. 

Seeding  alsike  clover 

Alsike  may  be  seeded  with  wheat  or  rye,  in 
the  same  way  as  red  clover.  When  used  for 
forage,    the    best    time    for    seeding   is    in    late 


ALSIKE    CLOVER  241 

summer  or  early  fall.  The  quantity  of  seed  will 
be  about  one -half  that  recommended  for  red 
clover,  as  the  seeds  are  about  half  as  large.  A 
pure  sowing  of  alsike,  however,  is  not  usually 
advisable,  because  of  the  tendency  to  lodge,  as 
already  pointed  out;  although,  where  it  grows  well, 
it  may  be  used  in  a  soiling-crop  rotation  with 
great  advantage. 

Value  and  yield 

Mixtures  of  red  and  alsike  clovers  and  timothy 
make  a  most  excellent  forage,  the  timothy  sup- 
porting the  clover  and  preventing  lodging.  The 
alsike  wall  mature  about  a  week  later  than  the 
red  clover.  It  makes  a  very  rapid  and  usually 
a  large  second  growth.  The  best  time  for  cut- 
ting is  when  the  plant  is  in  flower,  as  at  this 
period  it  is  richest  in  digestible  nutritive  matter. 
It  contains  more  water,  as  a  rule,  than  red  clover, 
thus  causing  the  same  tonnage  weight  to  carry 
less  nutriment.  The  yield  will  range  from  eight 
to  twelve  tons  per  acre,  depending  on  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil.  The  composition  of  this  clover  is 
similar  to  that  of  red  clover. 


Alsike  hay  and  pasture 

Alsike  clover  makes  very  palatable  and  useful 
hay,  its  fineness  of  stem  and  large  proportion  of 


242 


FORAGE   CROPS 


leaf  giving  a  larger  percentage  of  digestible 
matter  than  the  red  clover  at  the  same  period  of 
growth.  However,  it  is  more  difficult  to  cure, 
and  suffers  great  loss  in  handling  if  care  is  not 
exercised. 

It  also  makes  excellent  pasture,  starting  quickly 
after  the  first  cutting,  and  being  less  readily 
destroyed  by  the  tramping  of  animals  than  red 
clovers. 

Composition  of  Alsike  Clover 


Per  cent 

Water 74.80 

Dry  matter 25.20 

Ether  extract 0.90 

Crude  fiber 7.40 

Protein      3.90 

Ash 2.00 

Nitrogen-free  extract  .  11.00 


One  ton 
contains 

An  average 

acre-yield 

furnishes 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

504 

4,032 

18 

144 

148 

1,184 

78 

624 

40 

320 

220 

1,760 

CRIMSON     CLOVER 

Crimson  clover  is  an  annual.  Because  of  its 
adaptabilities,  it  has  quickly  made  a  place  for 
itself  in  American  agricultural  practice.  Its  habits 
of  growth  are  not  so  well  known  as  those  of  the 
other  kinds  described,  and  for  this  reason,  among 
others,  is  not  so  generally  distributed,  even  in 
those  sections  in  which  it  thrives.  Its  habits  are 
such  as  to  make  it  undesirable  to  substitute  for 
red  clover,  although  it  may  well    supplement    it. 


CRIMSON   CL0VJ4R 


243 


It  is  essentially  a  cool-weather  plant,  thriving 
well  in  late  fall  and  early  spring,  and  maturing 
seed  in  the  middle  states  about  June  1.  These 
characteristics   make  it  especially  suitable  for  a 


Fig.  49.     Field  of  crimson  clover,  grown  as  a  catch-crop  seeded  in 
corn  at  last  cultivation. 


244  FORAGE    CHOPS 

catch -crop  or,  cover -crop,  to  be  used  without 
interference  with  regular  rotations.  It  has  proved 
to  be  hardy  in  the  eastern  and  middle  states, 
although  many  failures  are  reported,  which  are 
probably  due  in  large  part  to  failure  to  under- 
stand its  peculiar  habits.  The  impression  that 
it  will  grow  well  on  poor  soils  with  other  crops, 
under  all  conditions  of  season  and  climate  and 
without  particular  care  in  seeding,  is. very  erro- 
neous. It  must  have  abundant  food;  it  is  affected 
by  drought  and  cold  and  severe  weather;  it  can 
not  subsist  with  other  crops  which  rob  it  of  mois- 
ture and  plant-food;  it  must  be  carefully  seeded 
in  order  to  insure  against  adverse  conditions, 
although  when  conditions  are  favorable  it  will 
catch  and  grow  from  a  mere  scattering  of  the 
seed  on  raw  ground. 

Method  of  seeding 

Crimson  clover  should  preferably  be  seeded  at 
the  rate  of  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per  acre,  on  a 
well-prepared  seed-bed,  and  covered  lightly  with 
harrow  or  weeder.  It  is  not  suited  for  spring  seed- 
ing, as  it  ceases  to  grow  as  soon  as  hot  weather 
comes.  The  best  period  for  seeding  ranges  in  the 
eastern  and  middle  states  from  July  15  to  Septem- 
ber 1.  Therefore,  it  may  be  used  as  a  catch-crop, 
seeded  in  corn,  after  the  regular  cultivation  has 


CRIMSON   CLOVER  245 

ceased,  and  also  after  early  potatoes,  tomatoes  and 
other  crops  harvested  early  enough  in  the  season 
to  enable  its  roots  to  get  hold  of  the  soil  and  to 
make  considerable  top  before  cold  weather. 

While  it  requires  good  land  for  its  best  develop- 
ment, it  is  well  adapted  to  light  sandy  lands  if  well 
supplied  with  mineral  food.  It  will  grow  later  in 
the  fall  than  red  clover,  because  it  is  not  injured 
by  light  freezing,  and  it  also  makes  more  rapid 
spring  growth  than  any  of  the  other  clovers  when 
seeded  in  the  late  summer.  When  land  is  light  and 
poor,  a  dressing  of  acid  phosphate,  say  at  the 
rate  of  150  pounds  per  acre,  will  aid  in  securing  a 
catch  and  insuring  a  crop. 

Crimson  clover  as  green  forage 

Early  maturity  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  char- 
acteristics of  crimson  clover,  from  the  standpoint 
of  its  use  as  green  forage,  making  it  particularly 
useful  in  rotations.  In  the  middle  states  it  will 
begin  to  head  about  May  15,  thus  following  directly 
after  wheat.  Cutting  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
heads  begin  to  form,  and  may  be  continued  until 
the  plant  is  completely  headed  out.  This  period 
ranges  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  The  dry 
matter  is  richer  in  protein  than  red  clover;  and 
the  plant  has  more  moisture  at  the  same  stage  of 
growth  than  the  red.    Therefore,  larger  quantities, 


246  FORAGE   CROPS 

as  usually  cut,  will  be  required  to  furnish  the  same 
amount  of  total  nutritive  matter. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  exceedingly  palatable  for- 
age, and  serves  good  purpose  for  soiling,  for  hay, 
or  for  pasturage.  The  composition  at  different 
periods  of  growth  is  shown  in  the  following  tabu- 
lation : 

Composition  of  Crimson  Clover 

May  12,  May  24,  May  31, 

Pounds  per  hundred  of        before  blossoming    in  blossom        mature 

Water 89.17  84.23  83.26 

Dry  matter 10.83  15.77  16.74 

Crude  fat 0.43  0.53  0.53 

Crude  fiber 1.78  4.37  4.78 

Crude  ash 1.21  1.31  1.47 

Crude  protein 2.53  3.00  2.95 

Nitrogen-free  extract  .   .  4.90  6.57  7.01 

Albuminoid  protein   .    .    .  1.80  2.09  2.13 

The  samples  taken  on  May  12,  before  bloom- 
ing, show  a  high  content  of  water.  The  samples 
representing  full  bloom,  on  May  24,  and  the  fully 
matured  plant,  on  May  31,  show  a  much  higher 
content  of  dry  matter,  although  still  much  less 
than  is  contained  in  other  green  forage  crops. 
The  samples  at  this  time  also  show  a  much  higher 
percentage  of  crude  fiber  than  on  the  earlier  dates. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  growth,  crimson  clover 
is  too  watery  to  give  the  best  satisfaction  as  an 
exclusive  feed,  although  in  actual  practice  the  for- 
age would  be  much  drier  than  is  indicated  by  the 
analyses. 


CMMSOX  clo\  urn 


247 


"There  has  been  much  discussion  at  farmers' 
institutes  and  in  the  columns  of  the  agricultural 
press,"  write  Roberts  and  Clinton  (Cornell  Bulletin 
No.  135),  "as  to  the  value  of  crimson  clover  in  this 
state  [central  New  York]  as  a  forage  crop  and  as 
an  improver  of  the  soil.  To  answer  these  quesl  ions 
in  part  and  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  the 


Fig.  50      Crimson  clover  ready  for  soiling.  May  20.    New  Jersey. 


248  FORAGE   CHOPS 

different  clovers,  there  were  planted  side  by  side  on 
August  1,  1896,  three  plats  of  clover,  one  of  crim- 
son, one  of  common  red  and  one  of  mammoth. 
The  soil  was  gravelly  and  porous.  All  varieties  of 
clover  came  up  quickly  and  made  good  growth. 
The  crimson  clover,  however,  made  far  more  rapid 
growth  in  the  fall  than  did  the  others.  One  object 
of  these  experiments  was  to  determine  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  stored  up  by  the  different  varieties  of 
clover.  On  November  2,  samples  were  taken  of 
each  kind  of  clover,  the  roots  and  tops  of  each 
being  taken  as  the  sample.  The  chemical  analysis 
shows  the  following  amount  of  nitrogen  stored  up 
in  each  per  acre: 

Nitrogen  Nitrogen  Total  pounds 

Kind  of  clover  in  tops  in  roots  of  nitrogen 

(pounds)  (pounds)  per  acre 

Crimson 125.28  30.66  155.94 

Red 63.11         ■       40.25  103.36 

Mammoth 67.57  78.39  145.96 

"All  clovers  wintered  well,  but  in  the  spring  the 
freezing  and  thawing  killed  nearly  all  of  the  crim- 
son clover.  It  had,  however,  served  its  purpose 
as  a  cover- crop  and  for  late  fall  pasture  would 
have  been  valuable,  leaving  in  the  ground  enough 
fertilizing  material  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  the 
seeding." 

Yield  of  crimson  clover 

The  yield  varies  widely,  but  from  good  seeding 
the  average  of  green  forage  should  be  about  eight 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  249 

tons  per  acre.  In  experiments  at  the  New  Jersey 
Experiment  Station,  crimson  clover  was  the 
cheapest  forage  crop  grown.  This  was  due  both 
to  the  low  cost  of  seed  and  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
grown  without  extra  expense  of  manure  or  ferti- 
lizer; besides,  it  was  generally  grown  as  a  catch- 
crop  and  did  not  interfere  with  regular  rotations. 
Its  advantages  as  a  soil -improver  are  also 
worthy  of  careful  consideration  by  the  dairy  farmer. 
If  seeded  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  it  may  he 
harvested  in  time  to  permit  of  planting  corn  the 
next  season,  and  besides  forage,  the  humus-form- 
ing material  remaining  in  stubble  and  roots 
improves  the  land. 

Average   Composition   of  Crimson   Clover 


An  average 
acre-yield 

furnishes 
IVrf'ont  Lb8.  LbB. 


One  ton 
contains 


Water 84.00  

Dry  matter 10.00  320  2,f>f,0 

Ether  extract «,"',»  10  s" 

Crude  fiber 4.10  82  656 

Protein 3.00  00  480 

Ash 1.40  28  224 

Nitrogen -free  extract     .    .  7.00  140  1,120 

Crimson  clover  "hay 

Crimson  clover  is  in  no  sense  a  substitute  for 
red  clover,  either  as  a  green  forage  or  hay,  but 
it  makes  hay  of   excellent  quality,  and  is  not  so 


250  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

much  injured  by  light  rains  and  dews,  owing  to 
the  smaller  proportion  of  leaf.  The  stems  are 
finer  and  are  readily  eaten  and  digested.  The  diffi- 
culty in  making  hay  arises  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  ready  for  hay-making  at  a  period  when  the 
season  is  still  cool,  and  bright  sunshiny  days  are 
less  frequent.  Stock  is  said  sometimes  to  suffer 
from  eating  crimson  clover  hay  from  the  forma- 
tion of  hair- balls  in  the  stomach,  due  to  the 
hairs  on  the  plant. 

Crimson  clover  as  pasture 

Crimson  clover  is  very  highly  regarded  as  a 
pasture  plant,  particularly  for  late7  fall  and  early 
spring.  When  seeding  has  been  made  in  July, 
on  lands  not  otherwise  occupied,  it  makes  rapid 
growth  and  serves  as  late  fall  pasture,  not  being 
injured  by  frost  in  the  same  degree  that  red 
clover  is.  Fall  pasturing  frequently  benefits  the 
plant,  as  a  thick,  heavy  crop  is  not  so  liable  to 
be  carried  safely  through  winter.  It  makes  earlier 
pastures  than  any  other  clover.  It  is  very  useful 
for  sheep  or  cattle.  As  a  pasture  clover,  it  is  a 
very  desirable  plant  in  the  rotation,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  adaptable,  easily  grown,  matures  quickly  in 
a  cool  season  and  possesses  the  characteristics  of 
other  clovers  in  contributing  directly  to  the  in- 
crease of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 


WHITE    CLOVER   AS   FORAGE  'J ,")  1 

WHITE    CLOVER 

White  clover  is  not  suitable  for  soiling  forage  or 
hay,  but  is  very  useful  in  the  formation  of  pas- 
tures, especially  on  low -lying  lands.  On  good  land 
it  lasts  from  four  to  five  years.  It  is  superior  to 
red  clover  in  thriving  on  lands  of  inferior  quality, 
standing  pasturing  well,  and  possessing  higher 
nutritive  value.  Sometimes  the  creeping  stems 
and  foliage  become  too  luxuriant,  when  it  may  act 
injuriously  in  suppressing  other  plants. 

White  clover  is  less  sensitive  to  climate  than 
red  clover.  It  bears  drought  very  well,  although  its 
roots  confine  themselves  mainly  to  the  superficial 
layer  of  the  soil.  In  dry  seasons  the  old  branches 
do  not  lengthen,  and  growth  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  principal  stem.  White  clover  suc- 
ceeds best  in  a  moist  soil,  containing  lime  and  an 
abundance  of  humus.  It  can  also  adapt  itself  to 
sandy  soils,  which  are  not  too  loose  and  dry,  pro- 
viding the  surface  contains  sufficient  nutriment. 

The  parent  stem  sends  out  creeping  branches; 
these  in  turn  branch  and  at  intervals  give  off 
shoots.  If  conditions  are  favorable,  the  branches 
become  long  and  extend  in  all  directions;  in  this 
way  a  large  surface  is  soon  covered. 

If  the  plant  has  not  been  sown  with  a  cereal 
crop,  full  development  is  made  the  first  year, 
flowering  early  in  spring,  but  rather  later  than  red 


252  FORAGE   CROPS 

clover.  As  pasture  it  is  better  than  any  other 
kind  of  clover,  being  readily  eaten  by  all  kinds 
of  live-stock.  Pasturing  is  begun  in  the  spring, 
as  soon  as  animals  can  get  a  good  bite,  and  it 
remains  good  until  late  autumn. 

Because  of  its  higher  content  of  water,  white 
clover  is  more  difficult  to  cure  than  red  clover,  but 
not  so  wasteful  in  curing,  as  the  leaves  do  not  fall 
away  so  readily. 

When  seeded  alone,  ten  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  should  be  used.  But  a  pure  sowing  of  white 
clover  is  neither  so  good  nor  so  healthful  for  stock 
as  a  mixture.  It  may  be  mixed  with  other  clovers 
and  with  grasses,  either  for  temporary  or  perma- 
nent meadows.  It  is  much  benefited  by  top -dress- 
ings of  lime,  marl,  ashes  or  mixtures  of  bone  and 
potash. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
OTHER    LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE    CROPS 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  leguminous 
forage  crops  in  recent  years  because  of  their  soil- 
enriching  propensities  and  their  supply  of  pro- 
tein substances  to  animals.  Many  of  these  plants 
are  now  being  experimented  with  in  different 
parts  of  the  country;  some  of  the  remaining  kinds 
that  have  now  thoroughly  proved  themselves  may 
be  discussed  here. 

COWPEA 

The  cowpea  is  an  annual  viny  plant,  more  a 
bean  than  a  pea.  Its  origin  is  authoritatively 
stated  to  be  in  the  Orient,  where  it  has  been  cul- 
tivated for  thousands  of  years;  it  is  thought  to 
have  been  introduced  into  this  country  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Its  best 
development  occurs  in  warm  climates;  in  this 
country  it  has  found  a  congenial  home  in  the 
southern  states,  where  it  reaches  its  maximum 
development.  A  number  of  varieties  have  been 
developed,  however,  that  are  adapted  to  cooler 
conditions,  so  that  now  it  is  well  distributed  even 
in  parts   of    the   North,  where   its   adaptation    to 

(253) 


254  FORAGE    CHOPS 

various  uses  and  the  rapid  and  large  development 
of  plant  make  it  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
annual  summer  legumes  for  forage  purposes. 

Varieties  of  coivpea 

The  natural  tendency  of  the  plant  toward  varia- 
tion has  resulted  in  many  varieties,  although  the 
permanent  and  distinct  kinds  are  comparatively 
few.  The  same  variety  is  likely  to  be  given  a 
new  name  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  as, 
for  example,  the  one  variety  that  goes  under  the 
name  of  Unknown,  Wonderful  and  Quadroon. 
In  addition  to  the  confusion  arising  from  this 
practice,  the  same  name  is  frequently  given  to  a 
number  of  varieties,  as,  for  example,  the  name 
Crowder,  which  is  applied  to  any  variety  in 
which  the  seeds  are  closely  packed  or  crowded 
in  the  pod.  The  further  fact  that  season  and 
climate  exert  such  an  influence  on  the  plant  as  to 
make  a  variety  in  one  place  very  different  from 
what  it  is  in  another  place,  renders  it  difficult  to 
give  positive  advice  as  to  the  choice  of  kinds  for 
specific  purposes.  The  varieties  range  from  a 
bush  a  foot  or  so  high,  without  runners,  to  those 
having  distinct  vining  or  trailing  habits,  the  vines 
sometimes  reaching  a  length  of  ten  to  twenty 
feet.  The  pods  range  from  four  to  eighteen 
inches   in    length,   giving  seed  of  every  possible 


Fig.  51.     The  cowpea. 


256  FORAGE    CHOPS 

shape  and  form.  The  period  of  mature  growth 
also  varies,  the  varieties  ranging  in  time  of 
maturity  from  two  to  six  months,  although  the 
habit  of  plant  bears  some  relation  to  the  period, 
for  the  more  nearly  the  plant  approaches  the  bush 
form,  the  shorter  the  time  required  for  maturity. 

In  order  to  choose  the  proper  variety,  the  object 
of  its  cultivation  should  be  clearly  established. 
When  short,  quick  growth  and  maturity  are  re- 
quired, then  the  bush  varieties  should  be  chosen, 
particularly  in  the  North;  whereas,  if  the  purpose 
is  to  produce  much  forage  and  the  period  of  growth 
can  be  extended,  the  vining  varieties  are  likely  to 
be  more  useful.  When  grown  primarily  for  green 
forage,  the  period  in  which  they  must  grow  should 
determine  the  variety.  It  is  more  difficult  to  choose 
varieties  for  the  North  than  for  the  South,  as  the 
plant  has  not  been  so  carefully  studied  in  this  sec- 
tion. In  the  more  northern  sections,  the  Early 
Black,  Small  Black,  Black  Eye,  Mt.  Olive,  South- 
down, Red  Ripper,  Whippoorwill,  Wonderful,  Clay, 
New  Era,  and  Iron  have  proved  excellent  for  the 
various  purposes  for  which  cowpeas  are  grown. 
Early  Black,  Black  Eye,  New  Era  and  Mt.  Olive 
are  superior  when  the  seed  crop  is  desired,  as  they 
mature  quickly;  the  others  are  better  adapted  for 
forage  and  green  manure.  The  cowpea  varies  so 
widely  in  its  habits  of  growth  that  it  is  possible  to 
select  varieties  suitable  to  all  conditions. 


THE    COW  PEA  257 

Time  and  method  of  seeding 

The  time  for  seeding  the  cowpea  depends  on 
the  weather.  The  crop  should  not  be  sown  until 
danger  of  frost  is  past,  and  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
warm.  In  cold,  backward  springs  many  failures 
have  been  recorded  because  of  too  early  seeding; 
the  seed  is  then  liable  to  rot,  and  if  uniform  and 
quick  germination  does  take  place,  the  crop  is  re- 
tarded and  is  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory  even  if 
warm  weather  follows.  This  is  particularly  true 
when  cowpeas  are  grown  for  green  forage  or  hay. 
Neither  should  they  be  sown  for  forage  later  than 
two  months  before  the  average  date  of  frost,  as 
the  first  heavy  frost  will  destroy  the  plants  and  no 
variety  that  is  now  known  will  reach  a  satisfactory 
stage  of  growth  within  this  period  except  as  green- 
manure. 

For  forage  and  green  manure,  the  crop  may  be 
sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  bushels  per  acre,  or  it  may  be  drilled  in  with 
an  ordinary  grain-drill.  If  the  seeding  is  not 
made  too  early,  broadcasting  is  very  satisfactory. 
If  early  growth  is  retarded,  weeds  get  a  foothold, 
and  the  crop  is  likely  to  be  choked  out.  When 
the  crop  is  grown  for  seed,  planting  should  prefer- 
ably be  in  drills,  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  or 
a  little  closer  than  corn,  and  the  quantity  of  seed 
may  be  reduced   to  three  pecks  per  acre.    When 

Q 


258  FORAGE    CHOPS 

the  seed  is  expensive,  it  pays  even  for  forage  to 
use  the  smaller  quantity  and  cultivate,  rather  than 
to  broadcast  the  larger  quantity. 

Seed  should  be  covered  one  to  two  inches  deep, 
and  on  very  light  soils  a  little  deeper.  The  season, 
to  some  extent,  governs  the  depth;  in  a  dry  sea- 
son, the  deeper  the  seed  the  better.  The  difficulty 
in  too  late  summer  broadcast  seeding  is  that 
crab-grass  or  other  growth  is  likely  to  choke  out 
the  plants. 

Value  of  the  cowpea  crop 

Perhaps  there  is  no  other  annual  leguminous  for- 
age crop  that  is  so  generally  useful  as  the  cowpea. 
In  the  first  place,  it  grows  in  hot  weather,  when  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  ground  covered;  (2)  its  long 
tap-root  penetrates  the  subsoil,  loosening  it  and 
making  it  more  porous;  (3)  the  absorption  and 
assimilation  of  the  free  nitrogen  makes  it  of  great 
service;  (4)  it  provides  good  forage;  (5)  it  may 
be  used  as  a  cover-crop;  (6)  the  roots  and  stubble 
are  left  as  additions  to  the  soil,  always  causing 
considerable  improvement. 

Manures  and  fertilizers 

While  the  cowpea  is  well  adapted  to  light  soils, 
nevertheless,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  had,  the 
soil  must  be  well   supplied  with  phosphoric  acid 


Crop  of  cowpeas  for  soiling. 


TEE    COW  PEA  261 

and  potash.  On  lands  that  are  capable  of  produc- 
ing fair  crops,  the  fertilizers  may  be  limited  to  an 
application  of  these  minerals,  and  a  mixture  of 

Acid  phosphate 300  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 100  pounds 

applied  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre  is 
recommended.  This  should  be  broadcasted,  and 
well  cultivated  into  the  soil  previous  to  planting. 

Harvesting  cowpeas 

For  soiling  purposes  the  crop  may  be  harvested 
in  its  immature  state,  although  a  larger  amount  of 
dry  matter  will  be  secured  if  it  is  not  cut  until  the 
pods  are  turning  yellow.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
have  the  crop  ready  in  two  to  two  and  one- half 
months;  when  the  early  varieties  are  sown,  and 
the  season  is  favorable,  profitable  crops  may  be 
harvested  as  early  as  this  after  seeding.  If  the 
cowpea  is  not  harvested  promptly  it  does  not  suffer 
serious  loss,  as  is  the  case  with  many  other  crops. 
The  leaves  remain  green  and  the  stems  succulent 
until  growth  ceases.  When  the  entire  season  can 
be  used  for  the  crop,  the  trailing  varieties  will  give 
the  larger  yield,  although  they  are  more  difficult 
to  harvest,  owing  to  the  intertwining  of  the  vines. 
If  cut  in  a  very  immature  stage,  the  forage  shows 
a  higher  content  of  water,  and  the  dry  matter  is 


262  FORAGE    CROPS 

relatively    richer   in    nitrogenous    substance  than 
when  more  nearly  mature. 

Cowpea  hay  is  more  difficult  to  cure  than  clover, 
owing  to  the  very  succulent  stems  and  large  leaves. 
Therefore,  it  must  be  handled  carefully,  in  order 
to  prevent  losses  in  the  field,  or  molding  in  the 
mow.  In  the  southern  states,  the  practice  of 
"ricking"  is  quite  general.  That  is,  the  crop  is 
mown,  allowed  to  wilt  in  the  swath,  then  raked 
into  windrows  and  allowed  to  dry  until  it  can  be 
readily  handled,  then  carted  and  placed  in  rather 
large  stacks  on  ricks  that  are  placed  a  foot  or  so 
from  the  ground,  enabling  the  plants  to  cure 
thoroughly.  There  is  no  special  need  for  this 
extra  labor  in  the  northern  states,  providing  it 
is  cut  as  early  as  September,  as  it  will  cure 
readily  in  the  windrow  if  the  weather  is  good. 

Yield  and  composition  of  cowpeas 

The  yield  of  forage  under  the  various  condi- 
tions of  soil,  season  and  time  of  harvesting,  will 
naturally  vary  widely,  ranging  from  four  to 
twelve  tons  per  acre,  with  a  probable  average 
of  eight  tons  on  good  soils.  The  yield  of  dry 
matter  and  actual  nutrients  increase  as  the  plant 
approaches  maturity.  On  the  average,  the  green 
forage  will  contain  about  16  per  cent  of  dry 
matter.    Following  is  an  average  analysis: 


THE    COWPEA  263 

Or  e  ton  An  avera2e 

For^e           contains  <£$<*  Hay 

Per  cent            Lbs.  Lbs.  Per  cent 

Water 83.60           10.70 

Dry  matter 16.40              328  2,624  89.30 

Ether  extract 0.40                  8  64  2.20 

Crude  fiber 4.80                96  768  20.10 

Crude  protein 2.40                48  384  16.60 

Ash 1.70                34  272  7.50 

Nitrogen -free  extract    .    .    .        7.10              142  1,136  42.90 


Cowpea  pasture  and  hay 

When  the  crop  is  not  needed  for  soiling,  it 
may  be  used  for  pasture  or  hay.  It  makes  excel- 
lent pasture,  and,  if  the  animals  are  not  allowed 
to  feed  it  too  closely  in  the  beginning,  it  will 
furnish  good  grazing  for-  six  to  eight  weeks,  as 
the  tendency  of  the  plant  is  to  throw  out  new 
runners  when  the  main  stems  are  removed.  Pas- 
turing is  wasteful,  however,  as  the  animals  tramp 
much  of  the  herbage  into  the  earth,  besides  kill- 
ing some  of  the  plants.  It  is  better  practice  to 
make  the  crop  into  hay,  as  it  makes  a  very  pala- 
table and  highly  digestible  product,  and  one 
which,  because  of  its  high  content  of  protein, 
can  be  used  to  substitute  for  concentrated  feeds. 

The  cowTpea  is  one  of  the  most  useful  forms 
of  winter  forage,  as  it  can  be  fed  in  considerable 
quantity,  and  because  it  possesses  characteristics 
which  make  it  a  good  substitute  for  purchased 
protein   feeds.     Experiments   at  the   New  Jersey, 


264  FORAGE    CHOPS 

Tennessee  and  Alabama  Stations  show  that  cow- 
pea  hay  can  be  very  profitably  substituted  in 
part  for  concentrated  feeds  for  dairy  animals, 
although  it  was  shown  to  be  advisable  to  use  a 
little  feed  in  the  ration. 


SOYBEANS 

The  soybean  is  from  Japan,  where  it  is  one  of 
the  staple  crops.  It  is  now  generally  grown  in 
the  southern  coast  and  middle  states.  Soybeans 
are  also  grown  successfully  in  Illinois,  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin,  being  better  adapted  to  the  climatic 
conditions  of  those  states  than  cowpeas.  The  soy- 
bean has  a  strong  central  root,  stiff  stems,  broad 
leaves,  and  somewhat  resembles  the  ordinary  bean, 
although  it  is  larger  and  bushier  in  form.  The 
plants  may  be  dwarf  and  early  maturing,  or  late 
and  tall,  but  in  no  case  do  they  have  the  vining 
and  trailing  characteristics  of  cowpeas.  They  are 
strictly  upright  plants.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties.  The  Green  seems  to  be  the  variety  most 
generally  used. 

Seeding ,  growth  and  use 

The  plant  resembles  the  cowpea  in  many  of 
its  characteristics;  namely,  that  it  should  not 
be  seeded  until  the  soil  is  warm,  and  when  grown 


THE    SOYBEAN  265 

for  forage  it  should  preferably  be  planted  in  rows 
in  order  that  it  may  be  tilled,  although  it  may  be 
seeded  broadcast.  The  quantity  of  seed  per  acre 
varies  from  one  to  one  and  one -quarter  bushels 
broadcast,  depending  on  how  well  the  seeds  are 
covered.  When  seeded  in  rows,  the  quantity  may 
be  reduced  to  one-half  bushel  or  three  pecks  per 
acre.  The  land  should  be  put  in  good  condition, 
and  fertilized  as  advised  for  cowpeas,  that  the 
germination  may  be  prompt. 

For  forage  purposes  it  does  not  possess  charac- 
teristics very  different  from  those  mentioned  for 
cowpeas.  Experience  thus  far  shows  that  the  soy- 
bean is  slightly  more  difficult  to  handle,  and  that 
the  yields  are  not  so  heavy,  but  the  plant  contains 
more  nitrogen  in  the  dry  matter  than  the  cowpea. 
It  has  been  grown  for  forage  when  there  has  been 
a  scarcity  of  cowpea  seed,  and  many  prefer  it  to 
the  cowpea  because  it  is  easier  to  harvest.  Its 
period  of  growth  is  about  the  same  as  for  cowpeas, 
reaching  its  best  condition  in  two  and  one -half  to 
three  months.  The  stems  are  stiff  and  hard,  and 
the  entire  plant  is  not  so  palatable  as  the  cow- 
pea, although,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  large 
leaves,  the  feeding  value  is  quite  as  high  as  that 
of  the  cowpea;  in  fact,  at  the  stage  of  growth 
best  for  forage,  it  is  richer  in  dry  matter  and 
protein  than  the  cowpea.  Yields  of  forage  on 
good  soils  average  lower  than  the  cowpea, — about 


266  FORAGE    CHOPS 

seven  tons   per  acre.     The    average    composition 

iSaSf0ll0WS:  One.on  *™ 

contains  ££ggj 

Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 75.10  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 24.90  498  3,486 

Ether  extract 1.00  20  140 

Crude    fiber 6.70  134  938 

Crude  protein 4.00  80  560 

Ash 2.60  52  364 

Nitrogen-free  extract     .   .  10.60  212  1,484 

The  soybean  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  pasture 
as  the  cowpea,  but  it  is  quite  as  good  for  hay  and 
less  difficult  to  cure.  The  crop  is  well  worthy  of 
wider  use. 

VELVET   BEAN 

The  velvet  bean  has  attracted  much  attention 
lately  in  the  southern  states.  In  Florida  it  has 
been  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  forage  plants. 
It  grows  well  on  light,  sandy  land,  and  the  yield 
is  ordinarily  larger  than  that  of  the  cowpea. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  vines  reach  a 
length  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet.  The  season  of 
growth  is  much  longer,  and  for  that  reason  the 
seed  cannot  be  matured  except  in  the  most  south- 
ern states.  Experiments  in  the  middle  and  east- 
ern states  show  that  it  is  not  well  adapted  to 
those  sections,  and  does  not  make  as  satisfactory 
crop  for  any  purpose  as  the  cowpea.  It  is  used  as 
a  green -manure  and  cover-crop  in  the  South. 


VETCH   FOR   FORAGE  269 

VETCHES 

There  are  two  species  of  vetch  that  have  re- 
cently come  into  considerable  use.  In  the  use  of 
vetches  for  any  of  the  purposes  mentioned,  care 
should  be  used  to  prevent  the  plant  from  ripening 
and  re -seeding  the  land.  In  some  states,  notably 
Michigan,  vetch  has  become  a  nuisance  as  a  weed, 
and  is  said  to  have  made  profitable  wheat- growing 
impossible  in  certain  sections.  Since  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  separate  the  vetch  readily  from  wheat,  the 
latter  is  ruined  for  milling  purposes.  When  grown 
only  for  green  forage  purposes,  the  danger  is  not 
formidable. 

Spring  vetch 

The  spring  vetch  or  tare  ( Vicia  sativa)  may 
be  substituted  for  Canada  field  peas,  in  a  mix- 
ture with  oats;  and  in  the  northern  states, 
where  the  pea-louse  has  been  very  destructive, 
it  serves  an  excellent  purpose.  It  is  sown  in 
spring  or  early  summer,  and  does  not  survive  the 
winter.  The  preparation  of  soil  should  be  practi- 
cally the  same  as  that  recommended  for  oats  and 
peas.  Fertilizers  should  also  be  of  the  same  char- 
acter. Experiments  indicate  that  one  bushel  of 
seed,  with  one  to  one  and  one -half  bushels  of  oats 
per  acre  makes  a  good  mixture,  although  the  smal- 
ler quantity  of  oats  will  be  better  on  good  land,  as 


270  FORAGE    CROPS 

too  large  seeding  of  oats  prevents  a  large  growth 
of  the  vetch.  The  plant  is  trailing  in  habit.  If 
conditions  are  favorable,  it  will  make  a  very  much 
thicker  growth  than  the  Canada  field  pea,  and  pro- 
vide excellent  forage,  being  very  palatable  and 
highly  digestible  when  in  the  best  stage  for  feed- 
ing. It  requires  a  longer  period  for  maturing,  and 
this  extends  the  time  during  which  the  forage 
may  be  used, — a  very  important  advantage,  par- 
ticularly in  dry  seasons. 

The  composition  of  the  oat- and- vetch  forage 
does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  the  oats-and- 
peas.  The  crop  may  also  be  made  into  hay  of  an 
excellent  quality,  and  it  is  readily  cured. 

Hairy  or  winter  vetch 

The  sand,  winter  or  hairy  vetch  ( Vicia  villosa) 
is  another  species  that  thrives  on  poor  soils,  and 
is  useful  as  an  early  spring  forage,  withstanding 
the  winter  and  growing  in  spring.  Owing  to  its 
trailing  habit,  it  should  not  be  seeded  alone 
(except  as  a  green- manure  or  cover-crop),  but 
with  rye  or  wheat,  preferably  wheat  for  the  cen- 
tral states,  in  August  or  September.  It  is  desir- 
able to  have  the  soil  well  prepared  in  order  to 
encourage  an  early  and  rapid  fall  growth,  as  well 
as  to  ensure  a  large  crop  in  spring.  It  should  be 
seeded  at  the  rate  of  about  one- half  to  one  bushel 


HAIRY    VETCH  271 

per  acre,  with  the  wheat  or  rye,  the  former  being 
sown  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  acre  and  the 
latter  at  the  rate  of  three -fourths  of  a  bushel  per 
acre.  It  will  be  one  of  the  first  crops  ready  for 
use  in  spring,  as  it  matures  with  the  cereal. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  use  of  hairy  vetch 
with  rye  or  wheat  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  larger 
crop  of  forage  may  be  secured  than  when  the 
cereal  is  grown  alone.  The  chief  disadvantage  of 
this  crop  is  the  expensiveness  of  the  seed,  but  this 
difficulty  will  doubtless  be  overcome  as  soon  as 
the  value  of  the  crop  is  known  and  larger  areas 
are  grown.  Owing  to  its  very  early  growth  it  may 
be  pastured  to  advantage  when  not  convenient  to 
use  as  a  soiling  crop,  usually  coming  earlier  than 
ordinary  pastures  are  ready.  Of  course  the  quan- 
tity of  forage  will  be  less  when  used  as  pasture 
than  when  cut  and  carried  to  the  barn.  It  is  not 
so  desirable  for  hay  as  the  spring  vetch,  because 
good  hay  weather  does  not  usually  prevail. 


Composition   of  Hairy  Vetch 

One  ton 


An  average 

*>■"-■»  SSSftS 

Per  cent               Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 88.10             ...  ... 

Dry  matter 11.90                238  1,190 

Ether  extract 0.50                   10  50 

Crude  fiber 2.60                  52  260 

Protein    .........        3.50                  70  350 

Ash ,    .    .        1.50                  30  150 

Nitrogen- free  extract    .    .        3.80                  76  380 


272  FORAGE   CROPS 

BROAD    OR    HORSE     BEAN 

This  plant  (Vicia  Faba,  or  Faba  vulgaris), 
probably  native  to  northern  Africa  and  south- 
west Asia,  is  often  mentioned  in  American  writ- 
ings, but  it  has  never  made  much  headway  here. 
It  is  a  stiff,  erect-growing  plant,  wholly  unlike 
the  common  bean  in  appearance.  It  grows  two 
to  four  feet  high.  It  produces  large  pods  and 
big  usually  flat  or  flattish  seeds.  It  is  more  like 
the  pea  than  the  bean  in  its  relation  to  climate, 
as  it  withstands  some  frost.  It  has  been  cultivated 
from  prehistoric  times  and  its  nativity  is  in 
doubt.  It  is  much  grown  in  Europe,  primarily 
for  forage  purposes,  although  the  seed  may  be 
used,  both  full  grown  and  immature,  for  human 
food.  It  demands  a  cool  climate  and  a  long 
growing  season  and  does  not  do  well  under  the 
hot,  dry  summers  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
grown  successfully  in  parts  of  Canada,  where  it 
has  been  used  somewhat  with  corn  and  sunflower 
to  make  silage;  this  combination  is  known  as  the 
"Robertson  mixture."  This  mixture  does  not  seem 
to  have  made  much  headway.  Frequently  the 
plants  are  grown  to  full  maturity  and  a  meal  made 
from  the  bean. 

Planting  may  be  made  early  in  spring  in 
clay  loams.  The  seed  is  sown  in  rows,  twenty  to 
twenty- eight   inches    apart,    so    as    to    allow    for 


BROAD   BEAN  273 

cultivation,  which  is  especially  important  with 
this  crop  for  conserving  the  moisture.  Cultiva- 
tion is  discontinued  in  the  latter  part  of  July. 
If  the  crop  is  in  early  enough,  it  will  stand  up 
well  under  the  snow  when  used  as  a  winter  cover- 
crop,  but  will  winter-kill.  Seeding  is  done  at 
the  rate  of  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre.  A  good 
yield  of  beans  is  thirty  bushels  per  acre. 

JAPAN    CLOVER 

Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  is  a  native  of 
Japan  and  China,  introduced  into  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States  about  1840,  since  which 
time  it  has  spread  throughout  the  southern  states, 
where  it  has  proved  of  great  value  as  pasture, 
although  it  is  frequently  used  also  for  hay  when 
grown  on  good  laud.  Japan  clover  is  also  a  valu- 
able cover- crop  and  green-manure  crop,  as  it  is 
well  adapted  to  light  and  poor  lands  and  withstands 
drought  well,  growing  and  spreading  when  other 
plants  die  for  lack  of  moisture.  The  plant  thrives 
as  far  west  as  Kansas,  and  as  far  north  as  Mary- 
land, although  it  does  best  from  Virginia  south- 
ward, where  it  has  spread  naturally.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  of  growth,  it  does  not  reach 
a  height  of  more  than  ten  to  twelve  inches,  and  on 
very  poor  land  it  simply  spreads  over  the  ground. 
Until  recently,  it  was  allowed  to  seed  naturally,  or 


2/4  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

was  seeded  alone,  especially  on  the  poorer  lands, 
the  custom  being  simply  to  harrow  the  land  and 
broadcast  about  twelve  pounds  of  seed  per  acre, 
without  covering.  The  seed  should  not  be  sown 
until  all  danger  of  freezing  is  past,  as  the  young 
plants  are  tender  and  will  be  destroyed  by  a  light 
frost.  Where  its  advantages  as  a  forage  plant  are 
appreciated,  it  is  now  often  made  a  part  of  a  mix- 
ture with  grass,  and  four  to  five  pounds  of  seed 
are  used  per  acre. 

On  good  land  and  well  cared  for,  Japan  clover 
will  reach  a  height  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  can 
be  readily  used  for  soiling  or  for  hay.  It  is  ready 
for  use  about  the  middle  of  June  as  far  north  as 
Virginia,  and  earlier  in  the  more  southern  states, 
and  makes  good  pasture  as  late  as  November.  As 
with  white  clover,  it  should  be  kept  pastured 
closely  for  best  results,  and  when  so  managed  is 
relished  by  all  grazing  stock. 

When  grown  for  hay,  the  common  practice  is 
not  to  cut  until  some  of  the  seeds  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  plant  are  ripe,  which  permits  it  to 
reseed.  While  more  easily  cured  than  the  red 
clover,  it  should  be  handled  in  practically  the  same 
way  in  order  to  prevent  losses  of  leaves,  which  are 
richer  in  protein  than  the  stems.  As  a  soil  reno- 
vator alone,  it  is  well  worthy  greater  attention 
than  is  now  given  it,  though  valuable,  also,  as 
pasture,  hay  and  seed  crop. 


CHAPTER   XV 

BOOT- CROPS 

English  agriculture  is  noted  for  its  root-crops. 
These  crops  become  a  regular  part  of  rotation 
systems.  They  thrive  in  the  cool  moist  seasons 
of  that  country.  In  America  they  have  not  re- 
ceived the  attention  that  they  deserve,  particu- 
larly in  the  northern  states  and  Canada,  although 
in  the  latter  country  they  are  better  appreciated 
than  in  the  United  States.  They  afford  good 
nutrient  materials  in  most  wholesome  and  diges- 
tible forms,  and  because  of  their  succulence  they 
become  a  good  adjunct  to  dry  and  concentrated 
feeds. 

"The  reason  why  the  production  of  roots  is  of 
special  interest  in  the  north  Atlantic  states,"  as 
expressed  in  a  recent  Cornell  bulletin  (Root -crops 
for  Stock-feeding,  Bulletin  243),  is  "that  these 
states  raise  a  comparatively  large  amount  of 
roughage  and  a  small  amount  of  concentrates, 
while  the  north  central  states  raise  a  large 
amount  of  cereals  or  concentrates  in  proportion  to 
hay  and  forage,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  of 
the  ratio  of  concentrates  to  roughage  in  the  north 

(275) 


276  FORAGE  CROPS 

Atlantic  and  north  central  states,  according  to  the 
census  of  1900: 

North  North 

Atlantic  Central 

All  cereals  except  wheat,  million  tons    .    .  4.4  69.2 

All  hay  and  forage,  million  tons 15.6  49.0 

Per  cent  of  cereals,  except  wheat    ....  22.0  58.5 

Tons  cereals  except  wheat,  per  animal  unit  .55             1.55 

Tons  hay  and  forago,  per  animal  unit    .    .  1.95             1.10 

Total  tons  of  food  per  animal  unit  (of 

about  1,000  lbs.  live  weight)  .   .    .      2.50  2.65 

"The  significance  of  this  table  is  furtlTer  em- 
phasized when  the  superior  feeding  value  of 
concentrates  is  fully  understood.  For  example, 
experiments  made  by  Zuntz,  of  Germany,  show- 
that  when  clover  hay  was  fed  to  horses,  forty-one 
pounds  were  digested  out  of  each  hundred  pounds 
of  hay  fed,  while,  when  oats  were  fed,  sixty- two 
pounds  were  digested,  or  50  per  cent  more.  It 
was  found,  however,  that  it  required  the  energy  of 
twenty- four  pounds  of  the  forty- one  pounds  of 
hay  digested  to  chew  and  digest  the  hay,  leaving 
the  net  nutritive  value  at  seventeen  pounds.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  required  only  twelve  pounds 
of  the  sixty -two  pounds  of  oats  to  masticate 
and  digest  the  oats,  leaving  fifty  pounds  of  oats 
available  for  producing  energy  or  work.  In  other 
words,  the  oats  had  three  times  the  value  of  the 
clover  hay  for  the  production  of  work  in  horses. 
The   energy   used   up   in   chewing    and   digesting 


SIGNIFICANCE    OF    ROOT-CBOPPINO  277 

food  is  manifested  in  heat  and  helps  to  keep  the 
animal  warm,  and  is  therefore  not  entirely  lost 
when  the  ration  is  merely  for  maintenance.  But 
since,  in  any  liberal  feeding  for  the  production 
of  work,  the  production  of  meat,  or  of  milk, 
the  amount  of  heat  thus  produced  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  animal  warm,  the  figures  given  above 
may  be  taken  as  representing  their  true  food 
value. 

"One  of  the  objections  to  roots  as  a  food  prod- 
uct lies  in  the  fact  of  their  high  water  content. 
This  limits  the  amount  which  may  be  fed  and  be- 
comes of  special  importance  where  they  are  fed  in 
connection  with  silage.  On  account  of  this  high 
water  content  it  will  not  be  practicable  to  feed  a 
sufficient  amount  entirely  to  take  the  place  of  the 
cereals,  even  should  this  be  desirable  for  other 
reasons.  The  trend  of  experimental  evidence  is 
that  the  feeding  value  of  the  different  types  and 
varieties  of  root-crops  depends  more  largely  on  the 
percentage  of  dry  matter  than  on  any  other  factor ; 
for  example,  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  appar- 
ently modifies  their  feeding  value  more  largely  than 
the  percentage  of  sugar. 

"The  problem  in  New  York  state  is  whether  we 
can  afford  to  raise  roots,  and,  if  so,  what  kind. 
The  following  table  shows  the  minimum  average 
and  maximum  number  of  pounds  of  dry  matter 
per  acre  which  was  obtained  at  the  Cornell  Experi- 


278  FORAGE   CHOPS 

ment  Station  in  1904,  1905  and  1906  from  sowings 
made  during  May: 

Minimum  Average  Maximum 

Mangels 2,168  5,155  8,453 

Half-sugar  mangels  .  5,480  5,880  6,440 

Sugar-beets     ....  6,014  7,090  8,090 

Rutabagas 3,537  4,331  5,079 

Hybrid  turnips   .    .    .  2,584  3,694  5,111 

Common  turnips     .    .  1,710  2,680  3,500 

Kohlrabi 3,570  4,070  4,540 

Cabbages 4,076  m    4,662  5,588 

'       Carrots 1,878  '     3,134  4,379 

Parsnips 2,080  3,130  3,6S0 

"The  estimated  yield  of  grain  from  flint  corn, 
the  same  seasons,  at  this  station,  was  approxi- 
mately 2,000  pounds;  while  the  yield  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  silage  from  dent  corn  was  about  4,000 
pounds.  It  is  probable  that  the  season  of  1904  was 
relatively  favorable  to  the  production  of  roots  as 
compared  to  Indian  corn,  but  this  was  not  true  of 
1905  and  1906.  During  the  latter  years  the  aver- 
age yields  from  roots  were  better  than  in  1904, 
although  the  land  used  was  conceded  by  all  inter- 
ested to  be  less  favorable  than  that  used  in  3904. 

"The  present  high  price  of  cereals  is  a  factor  in 
favor  of  the  production  of  root- crops.  If  corn 
meal  continues  to  be  worth  twenty  dollars  a  ton, 
or  more,  in  New  York  state,  economy  in  the  pro- 
duction of  roots  would  be  indicated,  while,  if  the 
price  should  fall  to  ten  dollars  a  ton,  corn  meal 
would  probably  be  the  cheaper  source  of  concen- 


At  AN  GEL-  WURZELS 


trates.  The  serious  handicap  to  the  raising  of  root- 
crops  is  the  fact  that,  with  present  cultural  meth- 
ods, a  large  amount  of  hand-labor  is  required. 
The  point  of  view  that  it  is  desired  here  to  empha- 
size is  that,  while  roots  may  not  be  economically 
raised  as  a  substitute  for  silage  or  other  coarse 
fodders,  it  may  be  economical  to  raise  them  in 
New  York  state  as  a  partial  substitute  for  concen- 
trates, particularly  the  cereal  grains." 


MANGELS 


Perhaps  there  is  no  other  one  crop  that  has 
had  so  wide  use  as  succulent  winter  forage  as 
mangels,  although  they  have  had  less  popularity 
since  the  general  introduction  of  the  silo.  It  is 
a  crop  that  can  be  grown  to  advantage,  however, 
and  it  possesses  many  characteristics  that  make 
it  an  extremely  valuable  product,  even  when 
silage   is  also  used. 


Varieties  of  mangels 

There  are  many  varieties  differing  but  slightly, 
as,  for  example,  the  Golden  Tankard,  Mammoth 
Long  Red,  Red  Globe  and  Yellow  Globe,  any 
of  which  will  answer  for  forage  purposes. 

Cornell  experiments1  give  the  following  indica- 

i  Culture  and  Varieties  of  Roots  for  Stock-feeding,  Bulletin  244. 


280  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

tions  of  varieties:  "Among  the  mangels,  all  of  the 
long  varieties  seem  to  be  able  to  produce  good 
yields  but  have  various  defects.  The  Globe  and 
Tankard  varieties  usually  contain  a  higher  per- 
centage of  water  and  are  low  in  dry  matter 
content.  Two  half- sugar  mangels,  Vilmorin  Half- 
sugar  Rosy  and  Carter  Half- sugar,  are  recom- 
mended as  suitable  stock  to  'use  for  breeding 
American  strains.  Sugar-beets,  although  rich  in 
dry  matter,  are  generally  so  much  more  expensive 
to  harvest  that  the  writers  are  not  prepared  to 
advocate  their  extensive  use  for  stock- feeding. " 

Land,  manures  and  fertilizers 

In  the  culture  of  this  crop,  particular  pains 
should  be  taken  to  provide  a  deep  surface  soil, 
as  the  deeper  the  soil  the  greater  will  be  the 
proportion  of  root  grown  under  the  ground.  Be- 
sides, the  crop  requires  a  large  area  of  soil,  in 
order  to  supply  the  rather  exorbitant  demands 
for  plant-food.  When  the  best  yields  are  ob- 
tained, it  is  frequently  recommended  to  subsoil 
at  least  eighteen  inches,  in  order  that  the  fine 
rootlets  may  penetrate  to  lower  depths.  In  order 
to  ensure  a  large  yield,  the  crop  should  be  well 
supplied  with  all  the  constituents  of  plant-food 
in  available  forms.  When  the  land  is  heavy,  it 
should  preferably  be  plowed  deep  in  the  fall,  and 


MANGELS  281 

covered  with  manure  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten 
tons  per  acre.  This  should  be  worked  into  the 
soil  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  whole  surface 
thoroughly  cultivated,  and  fertilizers  applied  con- 
taining a  high  content  of  nitrogen.  A  good 
formula  should  carry  nitrogen,  4  per  cent;  phos- 
phoric acid  (available),  10  per  cent;  potash,  6  per 
cent.  If  manure  is  used  as  recommended,  a  dress- 
ing of  400  pounds  per  acre  of  this  fertilizer  at  time 
of  seeding  may  be  made  with  advantage,  even  on 
good  soils. 

Seeding  and  handling 

The  quantity  of  seed  is  five  to  eight  pounds  per 
acre.  The  seed  does  not  germinate  quickly,  and 
early  growth  is  slow  and,  as  a  consequence,  early 
cultivation  is  not  possible,  because  the  rows  cannot 
be  readily  followed ;  therefore  weeds  take  posses- 
sion and  make  hand- labor  necessary.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  a  little  buckwheat  be  added  to 
the  seed;  this  plant  germinates  quickly,  and  the 
broad  leaves  clearly  mark  the  row,  making  earlier 
cultivation  possible. 

Mangels  should  be  sown  in  rows  two  to  two 
and  one-half  feet  apart  in  May  or  early  June,  and, 
after  well  started,  the  plants  should  be  thinned  to 
eight  to  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  cultiva- 
tion should  be  frequent,  and,  early  in  the  season, 
relatively  deep,  in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  in 


282  FOB AGE    CROPS 

the  very  best  condition  for  absorbing  and  retaining 
moisture,  as  well  as  to  remove  all  weeds. 

The  beets  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  frost 
occurs.  In  order  to  preserve  them  for  winter, 
they  may  be  stored  in  the  field  by  placing  in  cov- 
ered heaps  from  five  to  seven  feet  high,  although 
the  better  plan  is  to  remove  after  thoroughly  dry 
to  a  root- cellar  in  which  they  are  not  liable  to 
freeze  and  the  temperature  is  not  too  high. 

Composition  and  use  of  mangels 

As  with  all  root-crops,  the  content  of  dry  matter 
is  relatively  low,  usually  not  more  than  8  to  10  per 
cent.  The  nutrients  are  highly  digestible,  how- 
ever, and  when  associated  with  so  large  an  amount 
of  water  they  possess  a  very  high  value,  particu- 
larly in  furnishing  food  in  a  wholesome  form. 
They  are  extremely  palatable,  and  when  otherwise 
only  dry  feeds  would  be  used,  they  answer  a  good 
purpose  in  keeping  animals  in  condition,  as  well 
as  stimulating  the  milk  flow  and  the  laying  on  of 
fat.  They  are  very  useful  for  cows,  hogs,  chickens 
and  practically  for  all  other  kinds  of  farm  stock. 
Because  of  their  adaptability,  the  use  of  mangels 
is  increasing  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially on  small  farms  where  but  few  animals  are 
kept  and  where  the  labor  is  performed  by  members 
of  the  family. 


MANGELS  283 

Average   Composition   op  Mangels 

One  ton        An  avp.™«° 
stains         JEEJJ 

Percent  Lbs.  Lb8. 

Water 90. DO  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 9.10  182  3,040 

Ether  extract 0.20  4  80 

Crude  fiber 90  18  360 

Protein 1.40  28  500 

Ash 1.10  22  440 

Nitrogen-free  extract     .   .        5.50  110  2,200 

A  recent  Cornell  bulletin  (No.  243)  quotes  the 
following  experiments  on  the  value  of  mangels  for 
milk:  "Rather  extensive  Danish  experiments  indi- 
cate that  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  roots  is  about 
equal  to  one  pound  of  the  cereal  grains,  or  to 
three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  cotton-seed  meal,  when 
fed  to  milch  cows.  In  these  trials  no  silage  was 
fed,  the  basal  ration  in  each  case  consisting  of  six 
and  one -half  pounds  of  hay  and  ten  pounds  of 
straw  per  cow.  The  experiment  was  so  conducted 
as  to  eliminate,  apparently,  the  factor  of  succu- 
lence, as  shown  by  the  following  table  of  average 
of  six  experiments  including  about  lf)0  cows  dur- 
ing several  months.  Basal  ration  six  and  one-half 
pounds  hay,  ten  pounds  straw: 


Cereal  Cotton-  Dry  matter  Nutritive  Daily 

J.II,*  see<*  in  r<».»t              "nti'  yield 

*railis  meal  mangels               ratl°  of  milk 

Lbs.  Ll>s.  Lbs.  Ll>s, 

Lot  A  .    .    .      7            1.5  4.5  1:8-9  22.4 

Lot  B   .    .    .      4  4.5  4.5  1:5-5.5  23.7 

LotC    .    .    .      4             1.5  7.5  1:8-9  22.5 

LotD    .    .    .      1             4.5  7.5  1:5-5.5  24.2 


284  FOB AGE    CHOPS 

"It  will  be  norted  that  all  the  cows  were  fed 
roots,  but  two  lots  were  fed  roots  containing  seven 
and  one-half  pounds  of  dry  matter,  equal  to  about 
sixty- five  pounds  of  fresh  roots,  instead  of  four 
and  one -half  pounds  of  dry  matter,  equal  to  about 
forty  pounds  of  fresh  roots.  The  additional  three 
pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  first -mentioned  cases 
gave  as  good  results  as  an  equal  amount  of  cereal 
grains,  the  cereals  consisting  either  of  Indian  corn 
or  of  a  mixture  of  barley,  oats  and  rye.  Roots,  like 
the  cereals,  are  highly  digestible,  perhaps  even 
more  digestible  than  the  cereal  grains,  and  herein 
probably  lies  their  high  value.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  results  which  they  produce,  the  roots 
may  be  looked  on  as  watered  concentrates.  They 
have,  apparently,  a  high  net  available  energy." 

Yield  of  mangels  per  acre 

When  conditions  are  favorable,  the  tonnage 
yield  is  very  much  greater  than  can  be  secured 
from  corn  or  other  forage  crops,  frequently  reach- 
ing as  high  as  twenty-five  to  thirty  tons  p*er  acre, 
although  the  total  dry  matter  is  much  less  than  for 
a  smaller  tonnage  of  corn,  cowpeas,  or  other  suc- 
culent forage,  and  the  labor  involved  is  relatively 
greater  per  unit  of  dry  matter.  The  greater  ex- 
pense of  the  mangel  crop  is  due  in  large  part  to 
the  extra  cost  of  cultivation. 


MANGELS   AS   FORAGE  285 

Mangels  versus  corn 

The  relative  production  of  dry  matter  in  a  crop 
of  fodder  corn  and  in  mangels  is  well  shown  by  an 
experiment  made  by  the  New  Jersey  Station  in 
1894.  The  soil  was  good,  and  the  plots  on  which 
the  crops  were  grown  similar  in  character.  The 
tonnage  yield  and  yield  of  nutrients  per  acre  were 
as  follows : 

Corn  Mangels    Corn  forage 

Containing  pounds  of  Mangels  forage  increase  increase 

Weight  of  green  crop  .    .  56,600  20,000        36,600  .    .    . 

Dry  matter 4,684  6,130  .    .    .  1,446 

Crude  fat 33.9  152.2  .    .    .  118.3 

Crude  fiber 379.2  1,484.7  .    .    .  1,105.5 

Crude  protein 684.9  468.9  216.0  .    .    . 

Crude  ash 503.7  243.8  259.9 

Carbohydrates 3,112.6  3,780.2  .    .    .  667.6 

The  first  point  of  importance  shown  by  this 
comparison  is  that  the  total  dry  matter  contained 
in  the  crop  of  mangels  was  nearly  25  per  cent  less 
than  in  the  fodder  corn;  and  for  every  pound  of 
dry  matter  contained  in  the  crop  it  was  necessary 
to  handle  twelve  pounds  of  water,  while  in  the 
corn  fodder  the  proportion  of  dry  matter  to  water 
was  as  1  to  3.2.  It  is  shown,  also,  that  in  feed 
constituents  the  corn  fodder  furnished  nearly  five 
times  as  much  crude  fat,  and  four  times  as  much 
crude  fiber  as  the  mangels  and  20  per  cent  more 
carbohydrates.  The  feed  constituent  furnished 
in  greatest  amount  by  the  mangels  is  crude  pro- 


286  FORAGE   CROPS 

tein,  of  which  more  than  50  per  cent  was  shown 
by  analysis  to  exist  in  the  form  of  amides,  com- 
pounds less  valuable  than  true  albuminoids. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  man- 
gels possess  a  value  in  addition  to  the  actual 
food  constituents  contained  in  them,  due  to  suc- 
culence and  physical  character,  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  measure  in  definite  terms,  particularly 
for  winter  feeding  in  connection  with  dry  fod- 
ders. Under  certain  circumstances  their  produc- 
tion is  desirable,  even  though  the  cost  of  dry 
matter  exceeds  that  in  corn  or  clover,  mainly  be- 
cause of  their  dietetic  effect  and  of  the  greater 
digestibility  of  the  dry  matter. 

SUGAR-BEET 

Sugar-beets  are  often  recommended  in  place 
of  mangels,  largely  because  they  contain  a 
much  higher  percentage  of  dry  matter,  consist- 
ing largely  of  sugar.  Varieties  highly  recom- 
mended by  seedsmen  are  Queen  of  Denmark, 
White  Rose  Top  and  White  Green  Top,  although 
those  ordinarily  grown  for  sugar  are  quite  as 
useful.  The  preparation  of  land  and  fertilization 
should  be  practically  the  same  as  for  the  man- 
gels. The  seeding  should  be  somewhat  different, 
as  at  least  twenty  pounds  of  seed  is  required  per 
acre.      Cultivation    and    harvesting    and    storing 


SUGAR-BEETS  287 

may  be  practically  the  same  as  recommended  for 
mangels. 

Yields  range  from  ten  to  twenty- five  tons  per 
acre.  They  contain  on  the  average  18  per  cent  of 
dry  matter,  thus  getting  in  one  ton  nearly  twice  as 
niiich  nutriment  as  is  contained  in  two  tons  of 
mangels.  They  may  be  fed  with  dry  foods  at  the 
rate  of  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  per  cow.  They  are 
a  good  source  of  carbohydrates,  aside  from  the 
dietetic  value  that  they  possess  in  quite  as  great 
degree  as  mangels.  When  only  a  few  animals 
are  kept,  or  when  conditions  of  growth  are  most 
favorable  and  labor  abundant,  the  growing  of 
either  sugar-beets  or  mangels  is  recommended  as 
a  source  of  succulent  winter  forage. 


Composition   of    Sugar-beets 


<  >ne  tmi 

contains 


An  average 
acre-yield 
furnishes 


Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 82.00  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 18.00  300  4,320 

Ether  extract 0.10  2  24 

Crude  fiber 1.10  22  2G4 

Protein 1.60  32  3>4 

Ash 1.20  24  288 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .    .    .  14.00  280  3,300 

CARROT 

The  carrot  is  frequently  grown  for  succulent 
winter  food,  particularly  for  horses,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  excellent,    As  for  other  root -crops, 


'288  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

the  soil  should  be  deep  and  well  fertilized,  as  it 
is  impossible  to  grow  a  good  crop  on  poor  soil. 
The  main  varieties  for  stock -feeding  are  Long 
Orange,  Long  White  and  Short  White.  These 
may  be  planted  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the 
middle  of  June,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  and 
one -half  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  in  rows  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  apart.  The  early  culture  re- 
quires considerable  care,  as  the  growth  is  slow, 
which  usually  makes  it  necessary  to  hoe  between 
the  rows.  They  should  be  thinned  to  about  six 
to  eight  inches  in  the  row. 

Carrots  are  useful  chiefly  as  an  appetizer,  and 
are  not  fed  in  large  quantities.  They  should  be 
harvested  before  freezing  weather,  and  stored  in 
a  dry,  cool  place. 

TURNIP  AND   RUTABAGA 

Turnips  may  be  used  as  a  catch-crop  late  in 
the  season,  and  they  are  useful  both  for  late  fall 
and  for  winter  feeding.  They  are  particularly 
useful  for  sheep,  and  also,  if  carefully  used,  for 
dairy  cows.  They  are  very  watery,  and  do  not 
contribute  a  large  amount  of  actual  nutriment. 
They  stimulate  milk  flow,  and  their  action  in 
this  respect  is  responsible  in  large  degree  for  the 
belief  that  they  possess  superior  nutrient  qualities. 

The  varieties  mainly  grown  for  feeding  are  the 


TURNIPS  289 

Purple-top  and  Yellow  Globe.  The  Cow  Horn  is 
highly  recommended  as  a  catch- crop,  because  it 
roots  more  deeply,  thus  bringing  to  the  surface 
plant-food  from  lower  layers. 

As  a  catch-crop,  turnips  may  be  sown  after 
potatoes,  tomatoes  or  other  early  crop,  or  seeded 
in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  serving  both  to  con- 
serve plant -food  and  provide  a  succulent  feed. 
The  yield  varies  widely.  When  grown  primarily 
for  forage  and  the  soil  liberally  fertilized,  as  high 
as  thirty  tons  per  acre  are  recorded.  The  turnip 
does  not  seem  to  be  able  to  obtain  the  necessary 
phosphates  so  readily  as  some  other  crops ;  there- 
fore it  is  especially  benefited  by  applications  of 
superphosphates.  Lands  in  good  condition  in 
other  respects  may  grow  a  maximum  crop  of 
turnips  with  additions  of  phosphate  alone,  applied 
at  the  rate  of  250  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phos- 
phate. Under  average  conditions,  however,  an 
application  of  nitrogen  and  potash  should  accom- 
pany the  phosphate. 

Turnips  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or  in 
drills;  when  seeded  as  catch -crops  the  broadcast 
method  is  practiced  and  seed  used  at  the  rate  of 
two  to  three  pounds  per  acre.  Where  grown  for 
forage,  they  should  be  in  drills,  seeded  at  the  rate 
of  one  pound  per  acre,  and  thinned  to  six  inches 
in  the  row,  and  cultivated  as  other  crops. 

The  feeding  of  turnips  to  dairy  cows,  should  be 


290  FORAGE    CROPS 

made  after  the  milking,  as  they  are  likely  to  add 
distasteful  flavors  if  fed  at  other  times. 


Composition  of   Turnips 


One  ton 

contains 


An  average 
acre-yield 

furnishes 


Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 90.50  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 9.50  190  2,850 

Ether  extract 0.20  4  60 

Crude  fiber 1.20  24  3G0 

Protein 1.10  22  330 

Ash 0.80  16  240 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .   .    .  6.20  124  1,860 

POTATO 

It  is  not  frequent  that  it  pays  to  grow  potatoes 
for  stock-feeding;  still  it  often  happens  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  crop  is  not  marketable  because 
of  the  small  size  of  the  tubers,  when  they  can  then 
be  utilized  for  cattle  or  pig  feeding. 

Potatoes  contain  about  28  per  cent  of  dry  mat- 
ter, are  very  succulent  and  palatable,  and  exercise 
a  very  marked  effect  on  milk  production.  They 
may  be  fed  raw  or  steamed;  if  raw,  they  should 
be  cut,  to  avoid  danger  from  choking.  They 
should  be  fed,  at  first,  in  small  quantities,  although 
the  amount  may  be  gradually  increased  to  forty  to 
sixty  pounds  per  day.  They  should  be  washed 
and  thoroughly  cleansed  before  feeding.  Potatoes 
should  always  be  mixed  with  dry  feed,  the  amount 
added   being  in  proportion   to  the  needs   of   the 


POTATOES  291 

animal,  and  the  potatoes  not  in  such  excess  as  to 
cause  the  animals  to  scour,  which  frequently 
occurs  if  too  large  quantities  are  used. 

SWEET   POTATO 

Sweet  potatoes  are  also  an  excellent  food  for 
cattle  and  hogs.  In  wet  seasons,  and  on  heavy 
soils,  the  crop  is  liable  to  be  "rooty,"  that  is,  the 
potatoes  are  not  merchantable,  although  of  good 
size.  These  imperfect  roots  may  be  fed  in  the 
same  way  as  the  white  potato,  although  they  usu- 
ally contain  a  little  more  dry  matter  and  need  not 
be  fed  in  such  large  quantities.  In  the  absence  of 
other  succulent  feed  they  contribute  very  materi- 
ally to  the  improvement  of  the  ration. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   CABBAGE   TRIBE 

Several  members  of  the  mustard  family  (Cru- 
ciferse)  of  the  cabbage  kind  are  useful  forage 
plants,  and  their  cultivation  seems  to  be  increas- 
ing. In  general  feeding  practice  they  may  be 
compared  with  root- crops.  In  fact,  kohlrabi  is 
often  classed  with  root -crops,  and  well  it  maybe, 
since  it  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  turnips  and 
rutabagas,  differing  chiefly  in  having  the  thickened 
part  above  ground  rather  than  below  ground.  The 
leading  cabbage -like  forage  plants  are  rape,  cab- 
bage and  kohlrabi.  The  kales  are  not  much  grown 
for  forage  in  North  America.  Their  culture  does 
not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  rape.  Thousand- 
headed  kale  is  the  kind  mostly  recommended,  but 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  any  advantage  over 
rape  for  forage. 

RAPE 

As  a  forage  plant  rape  is  a  recent  introduction 
into  the  United  States.  Several  varieties  have 
long  been  grown  in  Europe  and  other  countries 
for  forage  purposes.  Of  the  various  kinds,  but 
two  are  generally  grown, — Dwarf  (Dwarf  Essex) 

(292) 


GROWIXQ    OF   RAPE  293 

and  Giant.  The  former  is  more  generally  useful, 
especially  on  the  light,  chalky  lands  of  England, 
and  it  is  the  only  one  that  has  given  satisfaction 
in  this  country.  The  other  is  grown  on  strong 
lands,  and  occupies  a  full  place  in  the  rotation. 
Rape  has  taken  the  place  of  turnips  to  some 
extent,  and  is  very  similar  in  its  management. 
All  varieties  are  annual,  but  in  England  they 
sometimes  do  not  mature  seeds  the  first  season. 
The  advantages  of  rape  are:  (1)  it  is  well  adapted 
to  most  soils;  (2)  it  can  be  seeded  either  in  spring 
or  summer,  serving  an  excellent  purpose  as  a 
catch-crop  and  for  green-forage;  (3)  the  expense 
of  seed  and  seeding  is  low;  (4)  it  is  especially 
useful  for  sheep  and  swine,  although  with  care  it 
may  be  profitably  fed  to  dairy  cattle. 

Preparation  of  land,  and  seeding 

The  seed  of  rape  is  small,  and  the  preparation 
of  land  is  therefore  very  important.  The  land 
should  be  deeply  plowed,  covering  all  vegetable 
matter,  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  the  surface  soil 
made  extremely  fine  previous  to  seeding. 

Although  rape  does  well  on  soils  of  medium 
fertility,  the  best  results  are  secured  when  they 
are  naturally  rich,  or  have  been  well  fertilized. 
When  grown  for  forage,  an  application  of  barn- 
yard manure  at   the  rate  of  eight  tons  per  acre, 


294  FOB  AGE   CHOPS 

well  worked  into  the  surface  soil,  is  desirable,  as 
the  plant  is  a  voracious  feeder.  For  its  best 
growth  it  must  have  abundance  of  available  nitro- 
gen. Hence,  if  manures  are  not  readily  obtainable, 
an  application  of  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen  should 
be  applied.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  fertilizer 
containing 

Nitrogen 5  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 8  per  cent 

Potash      9  per  cent 

applied  at  the  rate  of  600  pounds  per  acre,  will 
supply  the  food  in  good  proportions.  Should  the 
season  be  unfavorable  for  rapid  growth,  an  addi- 
tional application  of  100  pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate 
of  soda  when  plants  have  well  started  will  stimu- 
late growth  and  help  to  ensure  a  large  crop.  This 
top-dressing  of  nitrate  should  be  made  when  the 
plants  are  dry. 

The  rape  may  be  seeded  either  in  drills  or 
broadcast  any  time  from  early  in  May  for  pastur- 
ing in  July  or  August,  or  as  late  as  July  or 
August  for  late  summer  and  fall  pasture  and  also 
for  cover- crops.  When  used  for  a  cover -crop,  the 
broadcast  method  is  probably  the  better.  When  a 
large  yield  of  succulent  forage  is  desired,  it  is 
better  to  plant  in  drills  two  to  two  and  one -half 
feet  apart,  as  this  permits  early  and  thorough  cul- 
tivation. The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  used  is  to  be 
determined  by  the  condition  of  soil  and  weather. 


SEEDING    OF   RAPE  295 

The  quantity  should  be  increased  in  dry  weather 
and  on  poor  lands.  When  sown  broadcast,  three 
to  five  pounds  per  acre  will  be  sufficient,  and  when 
sown  in  drills  from  one  to  two  pounds  is  recom- 
mended. For  soiling  purposes,  it  should  prefera- 
bly be  seeded  in  drills  and  about  the  time  that 
corn  is  seeded,  or  when  time  of  severe  freezing  is 
past.  Machiin  j  adapted  for  planting  small  seeds 
can  be  successfully  used  for  this  purpose. 

Tillage  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  plants  are 
well  started,  and  repeated  as  frequently  as  possible 
until  the  plants  have  arrived  at  such  stage  of 
growth  as  will  not  permit  of  further  cultivation 
without  injury.  Ordinary  cultivators  will  answer 
for  the  work,  but  one  that  will  cut  close  to  the  line 
of  the  row,  without  covering  the  plants,  is  the 
best,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth. 
As  with  corn,  the  first  cultivation  should  be  deep 
and  gradually  become  shallow  as  the  roots  take 
possession  of  the  soil. 

Feeding  value  of  rape  crop 

The  value  of  rape  as  forage  is  chiefly  as  a 
soiling  crop  or  for  pasture;  that  is,  it  cannot  be 
harvested  and  preserved  with  advantage.  When 
used  as  a  soiling  crop,  it  may  be  cut  with  a  mower 
and  placed  in  heaps,  which  will  remain  good  for 
two  or  three  days.    The    following  description  of 


296  FORAGE   CROPS 

rape  as  a  pasture  for  sheep  is  in  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  11,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture : 

"Rape  is  unrivaled  as  a  pasture  for  sheep  in 
autumn  in  those  parts  of  this  continent  where  it 
can  be  successfully  grown.  As  a  fattening  food  in 
the  field  it  is  without  a  rival  in  point  of  cheapness 
or  effectiveness.  The  sheep  that  pasture  upon  it 
do  the  harvesting  in  a  most  effective  manner,  and 
with  but  little  cost  to  the  owner;  and  the  manure 
made  from  it  is  distributed  over  the  field  which 
produced  the  crop,  and  in  a  form  which  is  readily 
available  for  the  plants  of  the  succeeding  crops. 
While  rape  thus  grown  and  fed  does  not  add  fer- 
tility to  the  soil,  unless  in  the  plant -food  it  brings 
up  from  the  subsoil,  it  does  not  detract  from  the 
fertility  when  the  sheep  which  eat  it  off  are  in- 
closed upon  it.  When  rape  can  be  successfully 
grown  as  a  pasture,  the  necessity  for  sending 
sheep  and  lambs  to  the  market  in  a  lean  condition 
will  be  removed,  and  the  numbers  that  may  yet  be 
fattened  upon  it  in  this  country  will  only  be  limited 
probably  by  the  inclination  of  the  farmers  and  the 
demands  of  the  market.  Four  to  five  millions  of 
acres  of  arable  land  would  suffice  to  grow  rape 
enough  to  fatten  all  the  sheep  at  present  in  the 
United  States. 

"The  manner  of  feeding  off  the  rape  when  pas- 
tured by  sheep  and  lambs  is  in  outline  as  follows: 


THE    FEEDING    OF    RAPE  297 

"They  should  be  tagged  before  being  turned  in 
upon  the  rape,  or  soon  after,  as  they  are  liable  to 
become  purged  to  some  extent  at  the  first.  They 
should  not  be  turned  in  upon  the  rape  when  hungry 
at  any  time,  as  they  may  so  gorge  themselves  that 
bloating,  followed  by  death,  may  ensue.  When 
they  have  access  to  an  old  grass  pasture  at  the 
same  time,  the  grass  eaten  by  them  is  usually  very 
effective  in  preventing  scours  and  other  disorders 
arising  from  impaired  digestion.  When  the  ani- 
mals are  once  turned  in  upon  the  rape  it  is  not 
necessary  to  remove  them,  unless  in  time  of  severe 
and  prolonged  storms  of  rain  or  sleet.  At  such 
times  they  may  be  given  the  protection  of  sheds 
when  these  are  available,  otherwise  the  shelter  of 
a  grove  may  prove  of  some  service.  After  they 
have  fed  upon  rape  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
months  they  will  be  ready  for  market.  When  it  is 
desired  to  carry  on  the  lambs  into  the  winter 
months  after  the  season  for  pasturing  is  over,  they 
will  go  on  improving  in  fine  form  where  the  man- 
agement is  judicious.  In  other  words,  pasturing 
on  rape  is  an  excellent  preparation  for  winter 
feeding. 

"The  sheep  or  lambs  should  be  visited  two  or 
three  times  a  day  by  the  shepherd.  This  may  be 
done  on  foot  when  the  flocks  are  small,  but  when 
feeding  over  large  areas  the  aid  of  a  saddle  horse 
should    be    called    in.     When   sheep    get    fat   and 


298  FORAGE    CROPS 

heavy  they  are  somewhat  liable  to  roll  over  on  the 
back  and  so  perish.  They  do  not  require  any 
water  when  feeding  npon  rape,  bivt  should  have 
access  to  salt  at  will. 

"There  is  no  limit  to  the  numbers  that  may  be 
put  upon  one  field  except  its  capacity  to  sustain 
them.  The  labor  of  hurdling  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary, as  the  sheep  waste  very  little  of  the  rape. 
When  it  has  grown  strong  and  rank,  they  feed 
around  the  borders.  Like  an  invading  army  of 
crawling  insects,  they  make  clean  work  as  they 
go,  but  when  the  crop  is  light  and  thin  they  feed 
in  any  portion  of  it." 

Rape  is  also  good  forage  for  cattle,  although, 
when  fed  to  dairy  cows,  it  is  liable  to  contribute 
undesirable  flavors  to  milk  and  its  products,  even 
though  fed  after  milking,  as  recommended  for 
turnips  or  other  members  of  this  family  of  plants. 

In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  (Bulletin  No.  115)  to  deter- 
mine the  quality  of  cheese  as  affected  by  the  feed- 
ing of  rape  and  other  forage  plants,  it  was  found 
that  whenever  the  rape  was  fed  before  milking, 
there  was,  in  most  cases,  a  very  pronounced  rape 
flavor;  when  fed  just  after  milking,  there  was  also 
a  very  noticeable  flavor.  In  no  case  was  the 
amount  fed  larger  than  ten  pounds  per  day,  al- 
though it  was  all  consumed  between  the  morning 
and  night  milking.    In  fairness  to  the  rape,  it  is 


RAPE   FOR   FEEDING  AXD    COVER  299 

stated  that  other  green  crops,  as  cabbage,  corn  and 
clover,  also  unfavorably  influenced  the  flavor  of 
cheese. 

To  avoid  danger  of  over-eating  when  pastured, 
cattle  should  be  allowed  to  feed  in  the  rape  for  a 
short  time  at  first,  gradually  extending  the  period 
until  they  may  be  left  with  reasonable  safely. 
When  fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  this  danger  is  avoided, 
as  the  quantity  given  is  entirely  under  the  control 
of  the  feeder.  In  feeding  sheep  or  lambs  on  rape, 
they  should  preferably  receive  in  addition  a  small 
ration  of  oats  in  the  morning,  although  in  many 
cases  they  may  be  fed   exclusively  on  this  plant. 

As  a  cover -crop 

Rape  also  possesses  great  advantages  as  a 
cover-crop,  as  it  may  be  sown  thickly  as  late  as 
August  for  late  fall  pasture,  and  that  which  1ms 
not  been  used  as  forage  will  serve  as  cover  in 
winter,  preventing  blowing  and  washing  of  the 
soil,  and  maintaining  much  better  condition  of  soil 
in  spring  than  if  the  land  is  left  bare.  It  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  cold  in  the  northern  and  central 
states,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  so  advantageous 
as  winter  leguminous  crops  for  this  purpose. 
Nevertheless,  because  it  can  be  seeded  later  and 
makes  a  large  fall  growth,  it  possesses  very 
superior  advantages  as  a  cover  -crop. 


300  FORAGE    CROPS 

Yield  and  composition  of  rape 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  rape  is  usually  fed  from 
the  field,  data  in  reference  to  yields  are  somewhat 
limited.  At  the  Wisconsin  and  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tions, the  yields  have  ranged,  in  round  numbers, 
from  twenty -three  to  twenty- seven  tons  per  acre. 
When  mature,  rape  contains  more  dry  matter  than 
most  root -crops,  as,  for  example,  mangels  and 
turnips  and  the  total  yield  of  nutrients  is  much 
greater.  The  average  composition  and  yield  of 
nutrients  per  acre  are  as  follows: 

One  ton       Avei*age  aore- 
contains     yield  furnishes 
Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 86.2  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 13.8  276  6,900 

Ether  extract 0.5  10  250 

Crude  fiber 1.9  38  950 

Protein 2.4  48  1,200 

Ash 1.8  36  900 

Nitrogen-free  extract    ...  7.2  144  3,600 

At  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  rape 
when  at  the  best  stage  for  soiling  showed  the 
following  composition : 

Composition  of   Dwarf  Essex  Rape        One  ton 

contains 
Per  cent  Lbs. 

Water 84.50           .    .    . 

Dry  matter 15.50  310 

Ether  extract 0.50  10 

Crude  fiber 2.60  52 

Protein 2.30  46 

Ash      2.00  40 

Nitrogen-free  extract 8.20  164 


CABBAGE    FOR   FEEDING  301 


CABBAGE 


Cabbage  has  not  been  largely  used  in  this  coun- 
try for  feeding  live-stock,  although  knowledge  as 
to  its  value  for  this  purpose  is  undoubtedly  ex- 
tending. That  cabbage  possesses  a  very  distinct 
value  as  a  succulent  forage  crop  is  well  understood 
by  those  who  grow  the  crop  for  the  markets  and 
use  the  refuse  for  feeding.  The  extra  cost  of  grow- 
ing cabbage  beyond  that  of  growing  turnips,  rape 
or  other  similar  plants  has  probably  been  the  cause 
of  a  lack  of  attention  to  it.  The  disadvantages  of 
cabbage  as  compared  with  the  other  better- known 
crops  mentioned,  are  (1)  the  expense  of  planting; 
(2)  the  large  plant -food  requirements;  (3)  the 
difficulty  of  storing  for  winter  use;  (4)  the  low 
percentage  of  dry  matter  contained  in  the  crop. 
Farmers  with  small  areas  for  growing  forage  will 
find  cabbage  a  useful  green  crop,  as  it  is  excellent 
feed  for  all  farm  animals,  and  it  is  a  fairly  well 
balanced  ration  for  milch  cows. 

The  crop  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  condi- 
tions, although  its  best  growth  maybe  obtained  in 
cool,  moist  climates,  as  are  found  in  the  more 
northern  states  and  in  Canada,  or  in  certain  re- 
gions along  the  shore,  as  on  Long  Island,  where 
the  atmospheric  conditions  seem  to  be  peculiarly 
favorable.  The  crop  maybe  planted  in  a  rotation, 
taking  the  place  of  oats  in  a  rotation  of  corn,  oats, 


302  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

wheat  and  grass,  as  it  is  a  good  preparatory  crop 
for  wheat. 

Preparation  of  land  for  cabbage,  and  seeding 

As  with  rape,  the  land  should  be  deeply  plowed 
and  thoroughly  cultivated,  the  surface  well  com- 
pacted and  made  fine,  in  order  that  the  plants  may 
not  suffer  for  lack  of  food  as  soon  as  set.  If  seed 
is  used  in  the  field,  the  germination  should  be 
prompt  and  the  early  growth  rapid.  Farmyard 
manures  are  excellent,  and,  as  the  cabbage  is  a 
gross  feeder,  applications  of  ten  tons  or  more  per 
acre  should  be  made  even  on  good  soils,  and  this 
dressing  supplemented  with  nitrate  of  soda.  The 
fertilizers  recommended  for  rape,  both  in  kind  and 
quantity,  will  answer  for  cabbage.  Attempts  should 
not  be  made  to  grow  cabbage  unless  there  is  an 
abundance  of  available  food. 

As  a  rule,  cabbage  is  not  grown  from  seed 
planted  directly  in  the  field,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  its  successful  and  profitable  use  as  a 
forage  crop  will  warrant  the  extra  labor  required 
in  transplanting.  Of  course,  more  seed  should 
be  used  when  the  seed  is  planted  directly  in  the 
rows,  thus  permitting  the  removal  of  extra  plants 
when  they  have  reached  such  size  as  to  determine 
their  vitality.  The  seed,  in  this  case,  may  be 
sown  with  the  ordinary  grain  drill.  The  rows 
should    be  about  two  and  one -half   to   three  feet 


SEEDING   OF    CABBAGE 


303 


apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  to  about  two  feet 
apart  in  the  row.  The  wider  rows  are  preferable, 
because  of  the  greater  ease  of  using  machinery. 
The  depth  at  which  the  seed  should  be  planted  is 
preferably  from  one  to  two  inches,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil.    Light  lands  should  be  rolled 


Number  of  thousands 0 


Surehead  92  per  cent 


Autumn  King  71  per  cent . . 

Volgi  72  per  cent 

Volga  73  per  cent 

Ballhead  87  per  cent    

Carter  Model  kohlrabi  96  per 
cent 

Purple  Vienna   kohlrabi  48 
per  cent 

White    Vienna    kohlrabi   91 
per  cent 


Fig.  56.  Germination  of  commercial  cabbage  and  kohlrabi  seed  and 
number  of  seeds  in  a  pound  (Cornell  Experiment  Station).  The  black 
bars  show  the  number  of  thousand  seeds  in  a  pound;  the  light  bars 
show  the  number  of  thousand  that  germinated. 


304  FORAGE    CROPS 

immediately  afterward,  in  order  to  draw  the  mois- 
ture to  the  surface  and  cause  quick  germination. 
From  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  be 
sufficient. 

The  time  of  seeding  will  depend  on  the  place  it 
is  given  in  the  rotation.  The  young  plants  are 
tender,  and  should  not  in  any  case  be  planted  in 
spring  until  all  danger  of  freezing  is  past,  although 
light  frosts  will  do  no  injury.  It  is  better  to  sow 
either  early  or  late,  since,  if  the  cabbage  is  not 
seeded  until  late  in  the  spring,  the  heads  will  not 
form  so  well,  but,  if  sown  very  late,  the  plants 
will  be  hindered  from  making  heads  before  cold 
weather  sets  in. 

In  recent  experiments  at  the  Cornell  University 
Experiment  Station  (Bulletin  No.  242),  the  fol- 
lowing statements  in  reference  to  soil  and  seeding 
are  made: 

"The  soil  considered  best  adapted  is  one  rich 
in  organic  matter.  Good  crops  can  be  raised  on 
almost  all  types  of  soil,  provided  they  contain  the 
above  requisite,  are  in  good  physical  condition  and 
contain  an  adequate  although  not  excessive  supply 
of  water.  Cabbages  differ  from  almost  any  other 
farm  crop  in  that  their  successful  production  is 
little  influenced  by  the  type  of  soil  on  which  they 
are  grown,  or,  in  other  words,  they  show  a  wide 
range  of  adaptability,  so  far  as  this  factor  is  con- 
cerned.   Undoubtedly,  this  power  of  adaptability 


CABBAGE  305 

to  varying  soils  was  an  important  factor  in  leading 
the  primitive  people  of  northern  and  central 
Europe  to  cultivate  the  cabbage,  and,  having  been 
grown  by  the  common  people  of  these  regions 
under  all  sorts  of  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
with  more  or  less  success,  from  prehistoric  times 
until  the  present,  this  power  of  adaptability  has 
been  preserved. 

"The  soil  should  be  loose,  friable  and  well  pre- 
pared, deep  fall -plowing  being  advised.    An  ap- 


Fig.  57.     Solid  (at  the  left)  and  loose  heads  of  cabbage. 

plication  of  ten  to  twenty  tons  of  manure  per  acre 
may  be  made  before  plowing.  In  spring,  after 
harrowing,  an  application  of  well- slaked  lime,  at 
the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  of  quick -lime  per  acre, 
may  be  made,  and  harrowed  in.  The  harrowing 
should  be  done  before  rain  falls,  otherwise  the 
lime  cannot  be  so  readily  incorporated  with  the  soil. 
The  advantages  of  lime  for  cabbage  are  recognized 
by  many  growers,  and  one  of  its  benefits  is  its  action 


dOb  fob  age  crops 

ill  destroying  the  fungus  that  causes  clubroot. 
After  the  lime  is  harrowed  in  or  before  liming,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  apply  part  of  the  fertilizers. 
Amounts  frequently  used  are  400  to  800  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate,  15  to  16  per  cent  available,  or 
its  equivalent,  i.  e.,  60  to  120  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid;  100  to  150  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash,  and  fifty  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per 
acre.  Manure,  lime  and  fertilizers  should  be  uni- 
formly applied.  This  important  matter  should  not 
be  neglected.  If  the  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants 
are  to  grow,  the  last  harrowing  should  be  done 
with  the  Meeker  harrow  or  some  tool  which  will 
fit  the  surface  equally  well." 

The  bulletin  also  gives  the  yields  of  varieties 
for  1904,  1905  and  1906,  and  states  that  the  fol- 
lowing are  essentials  of  a  high  yield: 

"First,  rotation.  It  matters  little  what  crops 
be  grown,  provided  they  are  in  accordance  with 
rational  practice,  the  main  point  being  that  when 
cabbage  crops  follow  each  other  in  succession  the 
soil  is  likely  to  become  infested  with  the  clubroot 
fungus,  which  will  render  it  unfit  for  growing  cab- 
bage for  a  number  of  years.  Second,  early  plant- 
ing. This  gives  time  for  full  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  heads.  Third,  uniform  stand.  The 
number  of  plants  per  acre  may  vary  between  seven 
and  ten  thousand.  As  with  many  other  tilled 
crops,  however,  it  is  more  essential    to  have  the 


CABBAGE  307 

largest  number  of  plants  possible  in  the  rows,  and 
the  rows  wide  enough  apart  to  permit  free  use  of 
horse  implements  in  tillage.  This  may  cut  down 
the  number  of  plants  per  acre,  but  it  will  be 
economical  in  the  end." 

The  points  clearly  brought  out  by  these  experi- 
ments are:  (1)  that  the  tonnage  per  acre  of  all 
varieties  is  large;  (2)  that  the  percentage  of  dry 
matter  in  all  varieties  is  low;  (3)  that,  as  a  rule, 
the  larger  the  yield  the  lower  the  percentage  of  dry 
matter;    (4)   of   the   varieties  usually  grown,  the 


Fig.  58.     Forms  of  cabbage  heads.     In  order:  flat,  spherical, 
obovate,  oblong,  conical. 

Surehead  gave  the  largest  yields  in  all  the  years, 
whether  seeded  in  May  and  afterwards  thinned,  or 
whether  grown  as  plants  and  transplanted  in  June; 
(5)  the  early  planting  produces  the  best  yield  of 
both  fresh  substance  and  dry  matter.  The  most 
important  points  shown  by  these  data  is  that  cab- 
bage does  not  compare  favorably  in  yield  of  dry 
matter  with  many  forage  crops  that  require  but 
two  or  three  months  for  maturity,  and  which  per- 
mits of  two  or  three  crops  per  year.  With  cabbage, 
one  crop  is  practically  all  that  can  be  grown,  as  it 
requires  a  long  season. 


308  FOB  AGE    CHOPS 

The  average  composition  and  yield  of  nutrients 
per  acre  of  cabbage  are  as  follows : 

One  ton      Average  acre- 
contains    yield  furnishes 
Per  cent  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Water 90.5  ...  ... 

Dry  matter 9.5  195  4,800 

Ether  extract 0.4  8  200 

Crude  fiber 1.5  30  750 

Protein 2.4  48  1,200 

Ash 1.4  28  700 

Nitrogen-free  extract    .    .  3.8  76  1,900 

The  average  analysis  of  cabbage,  which  is  here 
given,  shows  a  much  higher  content  of  dry  matter 
than  is  recorded  in  the  Cornell  bulletin;  and  the 
average  yield  per  acre,  with  this  analysis,  would 
doubtless  be  much  lower  than  is  recorded  in  the 
bulletin,  probably  nearer  twenty  -  five  tons  per 
acre,  the  average  here  assumed. 


KOHLRABI 

Kohlrabi  is  another  valuable  member  of  the 
cabbage  family,  and  one  that  may  be  fed  without 
risk  at  any  period  of  growth.  It  requires  a  rich 
soil  in  order  to  attain  its  best  development.  If  the 
land  has  been  well  prepared,  it  produces  very 
heavy  crops.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties, 
both  bronze  and  green,  but  the  green  is  almost 
exclusively  grown.  There  are  hardy,  or  big- topped 
varieties,  and  small-topped  kinds,  which  come  to 


KOHLRABI  FOB   FEEDING 


309 


quick  maturity,  but  are  not  able  to  withstand  the 
severity  of  winter,  and  are,  therefore,  useful  only 
for  autumn  food.  Kohlrabi  is  particularly  suited 
for  filling  in  gaps  between  other  forage  crops. 

A  recent  Cornell  publication  (Bulletin  No.  244) 
speaks  as  follows  of  kohlrabi  as  a  forage  crop :  "  It 


Fig.  59.     White  Vienna  kohlrabi.     It  is  a  heavy  yielder  of  both  tubers 
and  leaves.     Background  of  six-inch  squares.    (Cornell  Station.) 


310  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

can  be  grown  wherever  rutabagas  are  grown,  and 
will  thrive  if  treated  as  described  for  the  latter 
crop.  In  the  middle  West  where  rutabagas  have  a 
tendency  to  run  to  necks  and  form  little  root, 
this  crop  is  a  very  good  substitute.  So  far  as  now 
known,  in  New  York  the  yields  of  the  two  crops 
are  about  the  same,  but  both  yielded  less  than 
mangels  on  the  experiment  station  grounds.  In 
addition  to  being  quite  a  free-growing  crop,  it  has 
the  following  advantages  over  rutabagas: 

"1.  It  is  not  so  subject  to  clubroot  or  finger- 
and-toe  (PlasmodiopJwra  brassicce) ,  and  some  other 
diseases. 

"2.  It  withstands  drought  better. 

"3.  It  can  be  grown  on  heavier  soil,  as  clays, 
and  does  admirably  on  muck  land. 

"4.  It  stands  well  out  of  the  ground  and  can  be 
readily  pastured  by  sheep  if  desired. 

"5.  It  has  not  been  known  to  cause  taint  of 
milk  when  fed  to  dairy  cows. 

"6.  It  is  rather  better  than  the  rutabaga  in  with- 
standing frost. 

"7.  It  may  be  grown  where  the  climate  is  too 
warm  for  the  best  development  of  the  rutabaga. 

"8.  The  leaves  are  as  valuable  as  the  stem. 

"Among  well-known  varieties  are  the  White 
Vienna  (Fig.  59),  Purple  Vienna,  Short-top  White, 
Goliath,  Carter  Model." 


CHAPTER   XVII 

PERMANENT  MEADOWS  AND    PASTURES 

The  raising  of  hay  forms  a  very  important  part 
of  the  farming  interests  of  the  eastern  and  central 
western  states.  The  aggregate  area  in  hay  is 
greater  than  in  any  other  crop.  While  in  parts  of 
the  eastern  states  the  hay  crop  is  deemed  worthy 
of  the  best  attention  of  the  farmer,  this  is  the  ex- 
ception rather  than  the  rule;  therefore,  while  there 
may  be  profit  from  its  growth,  the  yield  and  value 
are  much  less  than  should  be  secured  were  the 
crop  given  the  same  attention  as  the  other  crops 
in  the  rotation.  In  most  instances,  the  hay  is 
seeded  rather  as  a  catch -crop  with  wheat,  rye  or 
oats,  and,  while  good  catches  are  frequently  se- 
cured, more  often  the  stand  is  thin,  thus  reducing 
the  yield,  besides  permitting  the  growth  of  natural 
grasses  and  weeds,  and  very  materially  reducing 
the  quality  of  the  product.  Modern  conditions 
would  seem  to  warrant  greater  attention  being 
given  to  this  crop,  and  experiments  show  clearly 
that  the  hay  crop  will  respond  quite  as  profitably 
to  good  care,  and  the  use  of  manures  and  fertili- 
zers, as  any  other  field  crop. 

(311) 


312  FORAGE    CROPS 

MEADOWS 

The  main  market  hay  is  timothy,  and  market 
quality  is  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
other  kinds  of  grass  mixed  with  it.  Other  grasses 
are  of  value,  however,  and  these  will  undoubtedly 
be  a  feature  in  the  hay  markets,  and  exercise  an 
influence  in  grading  for  market,  when  their  value 
is  generally  known.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
grower,  it  is  desirable  to  have  more  than  one 
variety  of  grass,  as  it  permits  of  thicker  seeding 
and  larger  yield,  for,  when  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able for  one  grass,  they  may  be  favorable  for 
another.  Besides,  the  conditions  that  are  unfavor- 
able for  the  permanency  of  one  grass  may  be 
favorable  for  the  permanency  of  another,  thus 
lengthening  the  period  during  which  meadows  may 
be  profitably  mown.  Therefore,  mixtures  con- 
taining timothy,  blue -grass,  red -top,  and  other 
grasses  of  known  value,  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary mixture  of  timothy  and  clover,  are  to  be 
recommended.  It  is  desirable  that  the  varieties  of 
grasses  used  in  a  mixture  should  mature  practi- 
cally at  the  same  time;  otherwise,  the  mixture 
would  contain  over-ripe  and  under-ripe  grasses, 
which  would  unfavorably  affect  the  quality  of  hay. 

To  insure  permanency  of  meadows,  it  is  not  good 
practice  to  pasture  them,  as  the  tramping  of  the 
animals,  especially  should  the   land   be  wet,  will 


MEADOW    LAJVDS  313 

destroy  many  plants,  and  the  vacant  places  will  be 
occupied  by  weeds.  It  is  much  better  to  utilize  the 
second  crop  as  hay  or  green  forage.  If  pasturing 
is  practiced,  care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  it 
is  not  carried  too  far. 

Lands  and  their  preparation 

Lands  suitable  for  hay -growing  range  from 
sandy  loams  to  heavy  clays,  although,  on  the 
lighter  soils,  more  difficulty  is  experienced  in  get- 
ting a  stand  and  in  securing  its  permanence.  On 
heavier  lands,  the  grasses  are  more  likely  to 
secure  their  needed  food,  and  to  grow  without 
deterioration  for  a  longer  period. 

The  main  point,  particularly  on  the  heavier 
lands,  is  to  have  the  soil  suitably  prepared,  if  a 
good  crop  is  to  be  guaranteed.  The  preparation 
usually  given  for  the  seeding  of  wheat  or  rye  is 
generally  very  good  for  timothy  and  red -top,  sown 
at  the  time  of  seeding  the  grain.  As  already 
pointed  out,  such  seedings  are  not  to  be  regarded 
as  the  best,  as  the  purpose  in  the  seeding  is  to 
secure  the  grain  crop  rather  than  the  grass,  and 
the  grass  crop  is  assured  only  when  the  conditions 
are  all  favorable  for  germination  and  subsequent 
growth.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that,  in  order 
to  secure  the  best  results,  the  land  intended  for 
permanent  meadows  should  be  specially  prepared, 


314  FORAGE    CROPS 

not  only  plowed  deep,  but  frequently  and  thor- 
oughly cultivated,  both  to  destroy  weed  seeds  and 
to  put  the  soil  in  an  exceedingly  fine  tilth,  which 
promotes  the  solubility  of  plant- food  and  permits 
the  easy  penetration  of  the  roots  of  the  young 
plants.  It  has  been  shown,  also,  that  grass  thus 
seeded  does  not  usually  require  a  nurse- crop,  and 
that  such  seedings  will  give  a  larger  yield  of  hay, 
the  following  season,  than  can  be  expected  when 
seeded  with  grain  in  the  customary  way. 

Seed  and  seeding 

When  seeded  for  permanent  timothy  meadow 
and  for  market,  hay  is  the  object  sought;  hence, 
if  land  is  well  prepared  and  clean,  twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  of  seed  should  be  used,  although  it  follows 
that  with  this  thick  seeding  abundance  of  avail- 
able food  should  be  present.  The  common  practice 
of  mixing  timothy  and  clover  is  a  good  one,  as  gen- 
erally a  larger  crop  is  obtained  the  first  season — a 
sufficient  increase  to  pay,  although  the  selling  price 
is  lower  for  mixed  hay.  In  this  case,  the  follow- 
ing mixture  of  seed  has  been  found  to  be  good 
(using  twenty  to  twenty -four  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre) : 

Timothy 12  pounds 

Red  clover 4  pounds 

Alsike 2  pounds 


316  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

This  mixture  makes  an  excellent  hay  for  home 
feeding,  especially  for  cattle.  The  following  mix- 
ture of  seed  has  been  found  to  be  most  excellent 
for  lands  well  adapted  to  grass,  the  finer  grasses 
making  a  thick  sward,  and  insuring  a  larger  yield: 

Timothy 8  pounds 

Red  clover 4  pounds 

Alsike - 2  pounds 

Kentucky  blue-grass 2  pounds 

Red-top 2  pounds 

On  clay  loam  lands  that  are  naturally  moist,  the 
red- top  and  blue-grass  are  likely  to  crowd  out  the 
timothy,  leaving  a  practically  pure  seeding  of 
the  red -top  and  the  blue -grass.  These  make  hay 
that  is  not  readily  salable,  although,  if  cut  when  in 
full  head  and  before  the  seeds  have  ripened,  it  is 
readily  eaten  by  cattle.  If  allowed  to  ripen,  the 
quality  is  much  reduced,  as  it  is  not  only  unpala- 
table but  is  less  digestible.  Timothy  for  market 
should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  have 
dropped  and  the  seeds  formed,  but  not  hardened; 
the  leaves  are  still  bright,  while  the  yield  has 
practically  reached  its  maximum. 

Whatever  the  mixture,  the  seeding  may  be  made 
in  the  early  fall,  during  a  period  ranging  in 
southern  sections  from  the  latter  part  of  August 
to  early  in  October.  The  main  point  is  to  have 
the  seeding  made  early  enough  to  ensure  a  good 
growth  before  winter,  and  late   enough   to   avoid 


FERTILIZING   MJSADOWS  317 

such  summer  weeds  as  crab -grass.  Unless  too 
large  growth  is  made  the  first  fall,  it  should  not  be 
removed  nor  pastured,  but  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  land.  If  heavy  growth  is  made,  it  is  better  to 
mow,  rather  than  to  pasture  it  off  before  winter. 

Manures  and  fertilizers 

In  seeding  down  meadows  for  permanent  mow- 
ing, it  is  very  important  that  the  land,  even 
though  naturally  fertile,  be  well  supplied  with 
available  plant- food.  This  may  be  either  barnyard 
manure  or  commercial  fertilizer;  in  the  absence 
of  barnyard  manure,  commercial  fertilizers  can  be 
depended  on  exclusively.  In  the  use  of  barnyard 
manure,  the  quantity  applied  should  range  from 
six  to  eight  tons  per  acre,  preferably  in  fine 
condition,  distributed  evenly,  and  thoroughly 
cultivated  into  the  surface  soil.  This  should  be 
supplemented  at  time  of  seeding  by  a  fertilizer 
mixture  made  up  largely  of  phosphates  and  potash 
salts,  as  the  manure  will  supply  an  abundance  of 
nitrogen  to  give  the  plant  a  start  and  insure  its 
growth  the  first  season.  A  good  formula  or 
mixture  for  application  at  time  of  seeding  is  the 
following: 

Nitrate  of  soda 50  pounds 

Ground  tankage  or  bone 200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate      600  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 150  pounds 


318  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

This  application,  when  used  without  manure, 
may  be  300  to  600  pounds  per  acre;  with  manure, 
about  200  to  350  pounds  per  acre.  This  should  be 
applied  previous  to  seeding  and  well  harrowed  in. 

If  the  stand  on  young  meadows  is  good,  no  top- 
dressing  is  needed  the  first  year,  on  good  lands. 
In  spring,  after  the  first  year,  the  meadow  should 
be  top-dressed  with  a  commercial  fertilizer,  or 
with  finely  divided  manure  early  in  the  season,  in 
order  to  supply  the  food  needed  for  the  rapid 
growth,  as  well  as  to  encourage  the  deep  rooting  of 
the  grasses,  and  a  thickening  of  the  sward.  The 
mixtures  for  spring  top-dressing  should  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  nitrate  of  soda,  as  this  is  the 
one  form  of  nitrogen  that  is  soluble  and  readily 
diffusible  in  the  soil;  this  will  penetrate  deeply 
and  encourage  a  deeper  rooting  of  the  plant.  A 
formula  made  up  as  follows  is  one  of  the  best: 

Nitrate  of  soda 500  pounds 

Ground  bone 200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 200  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 100  pounds 

The  summer  or  fall  applications  may  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  minerals,  and  a  formula 
made  up  of 

Nitrate  of  soda «    .  200  pounds 

Ground  bone 200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 500  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 100  pounds 


FERTILIZING   MEADOWS  319 

may  be  used  in  order  to  encourage  the  growth  of 
the  second  crop,  or  aftermath.  For  this  purpose, 
an  application  of  150  to  300  pounds  of  the  mixture 
per  acre  may  be  made.  Experiments  to  determine 
the  most  useful  quantity  show  that,  for  the  spring 
top-dressing,  as  high  as  450  pounds  of  a  mixture 
rich  in  nitrate,  as  the  one  above,  will  pay  better 
than  smaller  applications,  although  in  many  in- 
stances, where  the  areas  are  large,  farmers  are 
not  prepared  to  provide  so  large  an  allowance. 
These  top -dressings,  as  already  pointed  out,  may 
be  either  manure  or  fertilizer,  but  they  should  be 
applied  every  year,  if  permanence  and  good  crops 
are  expected;  and,  while  the  proportions  of  the 
different  grasses  may  change  somewhat,  experi- 
ence shows  that  the  yields  will  be  more  profitable 
and  will  gradually  increase,  owing  to  the  improved 
fertility  of  the  land. 

Experiments  at  the  West  Virginia  Experiment 
Station  show  that  the  use  of  manure  alone,  when 
applied  to  a  soil  not  highly  fertile,  caused  an 
increase  in  yield  from  less  than  two  tons  per 
acre  in  the  first  year  to  over  five  tons  per  acre 
in  the  sixth  year,  and  with  nitrate  of  soda  alone 
to  about  four  tons.  The  average  for  the  six 
years  was  four  tons  and  over,  for  the  manure, 
and  three  tons  and  over  for  the  nitrate.  "The 
entire  meadow  produced  hay  during  the  six  years 
of  the  test   to  the  value  of  more   than  thirty-six 


320  FORAGE   CROPS 

dollars  per  acre  per  year,  in  addition  to  paying 
for  all  the  fertilizer  applied,  while  the  land  at 
the  close  of  the  five  years  was  more  valuable 
than  at  the  beginning  of  the  test.  This  plan  of 
growing  hay  would  not  only  result  in  increasing 
the  value  per  acre  to  the  farmer,  but  largely 
improved  his  soil  for  other  crops." 

Eecent  experiments  at  Cornell  (Bulletins  232, 
241)  did  not  give  very  encouraging  results  on  tim- 
othy with  fertilizers  alone  (muriate  potash,  acid 
phosphate,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  combinations)  as 
compared  with  good  stable  manure:  "It  is  per- 
fectly obvious  from  these  experiments  that,  on 
the  Dunkirk  clay  loam  on  which  this  experiment 
was  conducted  and  in  this  climate  and  under  the 
conditions  of  this  experiment,  stable  manure, 
at  fifty  cents  a  load,1  brought  much  better  finan- 
cial results  than  any  application  of  commercial 
fertilizer  at  current  prices  for  the  same.  It  also 
demonstrates  that  on  this  soil,  which  has  been 
under  cultivation  for  two  or  three  generations, 
when  stable  manure  is  available,  excellent  crops 
of  timothy  hay  may  be  produced.  Where  stable 
manure  can  be  procured  in  sufficient  quantity, 
the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  not  necessary. 

1  In  making  such  comparisons  as  this,  everything  depends  on  the 
value  placed  on  the  manure.  It  is  possible  that  fifty  cents  a  load  for 
manure  is  a  comparable  price  on  some  farms,  but  farmers  cannot  buy 
manure  and  haul  it  at  this  figure.  One  dollar  a  load  is  probably  a  fairer 
price;  and  for  city  manures  even  this  figure  must  be  at  least  doubled. 


FERTILIZING    TIMOTHY  321 

On  the  other  hand,  these  experiments  give  rea- 
son to  believe  that,  when  stable  manure  is  lack- 
ing or  not  sufficiently  abundant,  commercial 
fertilizers  may  be  used,  if  used  judiciously,  with 
good  results. 

"For  the  New  York  farmer,  especially  those 
who  wish  to  raise  the  maximum  amount  of  hay, 
a  judicious  blending  of  stable  manure,  legumi- 
nous crops  and  commercial  fertilizers  will  prob- 
ably bring  both  the  maximum  yield  and  the 
most  economic  returns.  For  the  farmer  who 
wishes  to  raise  a  larger  proportion  of  hay  on 
Dunkirk  clay  loam,  an  eight -year  rotation  may 
be  suggested:  hay,  five  years;  an  intertilled 
crop,  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  beans,  mangels, 
rutabagas  or  cabbages,  one  year;  oats,  one  year; 
winter  wheat  or  rye,  one  year.  Timothy  would 
be  seeded  in  the  fall  with  the  wheat  or  rye  and 
a  mixture  of  red  and  alsike  clover  the  following 
spring.  In  this  rotation  stable  manure  should 
be  applied  to  the  grass  land  before  plowing  for 
the  cultivated  crop.  No  fertilizer  of  any  sort 
need  be  applied  for  oats.  To  the  wheat  apply 
commercial  fertilizer  relatively  high  in  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  and  low  in  nitrogen.  Apply  in 
the  spring  to  each  grass  crop,  just  as  soon  as 
the  grass  starts,  commercial  fertilizers  relatively 
high  in  nitrogen  and  low  in  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.     Mixed    fertilizers    usually    contain    too 


322  FORAGE   CROPS 

high  a  proportion  of  phosphoric  acid  and  too 
low  a  proportion  of  nitrogen  for  the  production 
of  timothy  hay  upon  the  soil  and  in  the  climate 
under  consideration.  It  would  probably  be  best 
for  the  farmer  to  buy  the  separate  ingredients 
and  mix  them  himself.  The  following  mixture 
or  its  equivalent  is  recommended,  nitrate  of 
soda,  200  pounds;  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate, 
100  pounds,  and  muriate  of  potash,  80  per  cent 
purity,  50  pounds.  Whether  this  quantity  should 
be  applied  per  acre,  or  a  greater  or  less  quantity, 
can  best  be  determined  from  the  history  of  the 
land  and  the  appearance  of  the  meadow  from 
year  to  year.  In  the  experiments  under  consid- 
eration, only  acid  phosphate  has  been  used  as  a 
source  of  phosphoric  acid,  although  experiments 
at  the  Pennsylvania  and  Illinois  Stations  indi- 
cate that  finely  ground  phosphate  rock  may,  in 
the  course  of  a  rotation,  be  equally  useful." 


PERMANENT    PASTURES 

The  treatment  of  permanent  pastures  follows 
the  same  general  procedure  as  for  permanent 
meadows.  In  many  parts  of  the  country,  past- 
ures occupy  the  rougher  areas  of  the  farm.  In 
some  instances  they  are  too  wet,  in  others  too 
rough,  and  in  practically  all  cases  no  attention 
is  given  to  their  improvement,  either  in  the  way 


32-t  FORAGE    CHOPS 

of  added  fertilit}^,  or  of  drainage,  or  in  cleaning 
the  land  of  foreign  growths.  Experience  has 
shown  that  pastures  may  be  very  materially  im- 
proved, and  at  slight  expense,  if  careful  plans 
are  made  and  a  definite  system  of  treatment  is 
laid  out  and  practiced.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
land,  and  seeding,  the  suggestions  already  made 
for  meadows  may  follow,  except  that  many 
grasses  will  serve  as  pasture  that  are  not  so  well 
adapted  for  hay;  besides,  the  objections  made  to 
mixtures  for  hay  do  not  hold  good  for  pastures, 
as  the  farmer  uses  them  for  his  own  stock  rather 
than  offers  them  for  sale. 

Seed   mixture 

The  following  mixture  of  grasses  and  clovers 
will  probably  answer  quite  as  well  as  any  other, 
in  the  seeding  down  of  pastures,  as  the  variety 
of  grasses  is  such  as  to  insure  a  thick  sward, 
as  well  as  to  provide  for  both  early  and  late 
grazing: 

Timothy 3  pounds 

Orchard  grass 2  pounds 

Red-top 2  pounds 

Kentucky  blue- grass 2  pounds 

Italian  rye- grass 1  pound 

Meadow  fescue 2  pounds 

Red  clover 4  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 


PERMANENT  PASTURE  325 

Preparation  of  land  and  top-dressing 

In  the  preparation  of  the  land  and  in  seeding, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  to  remove  all 
weeds,  by  allowing  the  land  to  lie  bare  for  a 
time  previous  to  seeding,  and  frequently  to  cul- 
tivate it.  Since  the  pasture  is  to  remain  for  a 
long  period,  it  is  usually  important  that  the  land 
be  well  limed,  using  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels 
per  acre,  and  thoroughly  harrowing  it  into  the  soil 
in  the  summer  before  the  seeding.  This  will  not 
only  sweeten  the  soil,  but  will  encourage  the 
growth  of  clovers  and  other  valuable  legumes, 
which  are  always  desirable. 

Top -dressings  should  then  be  made  at  least 
once  each  year,  preferably  early  in  spring  before 
the  animals  are  turned  on.  The  mixture  may  be 
similar  to  that  recommended  for  meadows,  applied 
at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre.  If  ap- 
plied in  the  fall,  after  the  pasturage  has  ceased  for 
the  season,  one  not  containing  nitrates  is  prefer- 
able. An  equal  mixture  of  kainit,  ground  bone  and 
acid  phosphate  has  been  found  to  be  very  useful, 
at  the  rate  of  about  three  hundred  pounds  per 
acre.  This  top-dressing  not  only  causes  a  thicker 
growth  of  the  nutritious  grasses,  but  encourages  a 
tendency  to  deep  rooting,  and  thus  a  greater 
resistance  to  drought,  besides  improving  the  soil 
from  year  to  year  and  preventing  running  out  of 


326  FOB  AGE    CROPS 

the   grasses,   which   is   so  common  on  neglected 
pasture. 

Weeds  and  brambles  which  are  not  consumed 
by  stock  should  be  removed  each  year,  preferably 
in  August,  at  which  season  the  destruction  of  the 
plant  is  likely  to  result.  Systematic  management 
and  treatment  of  pastures  will  result  in  many  in- 
stances in  increasing  the  yield  more  than  two-fold ; 
this  should  be  a  part  of  the  practice  of  every  far- 
mer. On  rough  lands,  where  it  is  not  possible  to 
plow  and  prepare  the  soil  and  where  grasses  come 
in  naturally,  the  permanency  of  the  pastures  may 
be  increased,  and  the  quality  improved,  simply  by 
dressing  with  commercial  fertilizers,  using  mainly 
ground  bone,  acid  phosphate  and  muriate  of  pot- 
ash, and  liming  once  in  about  four  years.  Many 
hill  pastures,  that  furnish  scanty  .herbage,  may  be 
very  quickly  improved  by  this  method,  and  the 
yield  of  forage  very  largely  increased.  In  these 
cases,  the  soil  is  frequently  dry  and  poor,  and  it 
requires  only  that  the  minerals  should  be  applied, 
in  order  that  the  plants  may  develop  more  rapidly, 
and  continue  for  a  longer  time. 

Benewing  old  pastures 

Old  pastures  that  have  become  sod-bound  and 
mossy  may  be  greatly  improved  by  scarifying  with 
any  suitable  tool ;  a  spike-tooth  harrow  will  answer 


PERMANENT   PASTURE  327 

the  purpose,  as  it  will  do  greater  service  among 
stones  and  stumps  than  most  others.  Lime  the 
land  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre, 
and  fertilize  with  the  mixture  of  ground  bone,  acid 
phosphate  and  kainit  at  the  rate  of  200  to  500 
pounds  per  acre.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  will  let  in 
the  air,  the  lime  will  sweeten  it,  and  the  fertilizer 
will  provide  additional  food.  Seed  should  then  be 
sown  and  lightly  covered.  The  expense  is  not 
great,  while  the  value  of  the  pasture  is  manifestly 
improved,  and  its  greater  permanence  assured. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
BERMUDA-GRASS   AND   RUSSIAN  BROME    GRASS 

Timothy,  red -top  and  June -grass  are  the  staple 
meadow  and  pasture  grasses  of  the  older  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  remarks  in  the  preceding 
chapter  apply  specially  to  them  and  to  combi- 
nations with  clovers.  There  remain  very  many 
grasses  of  recent  introduction,  or  which  have 
lately  come  into  notice,  but  a  discussion  of  them 
is  scarcely  called  for  in  a  brief  popular  work  of 
this  kind.  Two  other  grasses,  however,  need  to 
be  specially  considered,  and  a  discussion  of  them 
now  follows. 

BERMUDA -GRASS 

Bermuda -grass  is  now  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  valuable  grasses  for  the  southern  states,  par- 
ticularly for  pasture.  It  is  perennial,  the  creeping 
stems  of  which  produce  nodes  at  short  intervals; 
each  joint  is  capable  of  producing  a  new  plant, 
even  though  it  is  cut  off  and  completely  separated 
from  the  main  stem.  It  is  because  of  this  charac- 
teristic, although  valuable  from  the  standpoint  of 
securing  a  thick  stand,  that  many  farmers  object 
to  its  introduction,  as,  after  it  is  once  seeded,  the 

(328) 


BERMUDA-GRASS  329 

cleaning  of  the  land  is  very  difficult.  Many  growers 
now  think  that,  when  rotations  are  desired,  it  is 
not  necessary  completely  to  clean  the  land  of 
Bermuda -grass,  since,  if  a  few  joints  are  left, 
these  serve  to  bind  the  land  and  to  hold  moisture ; 
then,  when  the  grass  crop  is  wanted  again,  enough 
joints  remain  alive  quickly  to  form  a  complete 
cover.  The  plant  makes  a  thick,  leafy  growth 
with  branches  of  five  to  ten  inches  in  height.  It  is 
the  common  lawn  grass  of  the  South. 

Bermuda-grass  is  a  hot-weather  plant,  and 
thrives  only  in  those  regions  in  which  the  winters 
are  short,  and  the  frost  does  not  penetrate  deep  or 
persist  for  a  long  time.  It  grows  through  the 
entire  summer.  While  it  will  make  a  much  better 
yi*ild  on  good  lands,  it  is  also  well  adapted  for 
pasture  on  poor  lands,  and  on  those  liable  to  wash 
and  gulley;  and  its  power  of  withstanding  heat 
and  drought,  and  to  revive  quickly  when  moisture 
comes,  arc  among  its  valuable  characteristics.  It 
grows  best  on  light  soils,  river- bottoms  and  at  the 
foot  of  hills,  where  the  soil  has  been  washed  from 
the  higher  levels.  Its  habit  of  throwing  out  under- 
ground stems,  makes  it  better  adapted  to  sandy 
lands  than  to  stiff  heavy  clays;  nevertheless,  when 
once  well  established  on  the  heavier  soils,  it  is 
serviceable.  It  has  rendered  great  service  in  the 
South  in  preventing  the  washing  <>f  lands,  a 
danger  that   is   common   in   the   southern   states. 


330  FORAGE    CROPS 

Preparation  of  the  land 

As  with  other  grass  plants,  the  better  the  prep- 
aration of  land,  and  the  cleaner,  the  quicker  will 
the  stand  of  grass  be  secured.  The  conditions 
which  result  from  the  planting  and  care  of  corn, 
cotton  and  tobacco,  provide  a  suitable  preparation 
for  Bermuda -grass.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of 
seed  and  its  low  vitality,  the  method  now  generally 
used  to  secure  a  stand,  is  to  plant  pieces  of  root- 
stocks  rather  than  to  seed  in  the  ordinary  way, 
although  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  small  area 
seeded  to  use  as  a  cutting  nursery  for  enlarging 
the  area.  For  this  purpose,  the  seed  should  be 
sown  broadcast,  on  clean,  moist  land,  and  covered 
with  a  rake  or  light  harrow.  Five  pounds  of  seed 
is  sufficient  for  an  acre. 

This  plant  responds  well  to  fertilizers,  and  top- 
dressings  with  nitrate  of  soda,  where  the  soils 
have  been  suitably  fertilized  with  minerals  at  time 
of  seeding,  are  very  profitable. 

Bermuda- grass  for  pasture  or  meadow 

The  following  methods  of  securing  a  pasture 
or  meadow  of  Bermuda- grass  are  described  by 
Prof.  F.  Lamson-Scribner1:  — 

"On  account  of  the  high  price  of  seed,  and  the 

Circular  31,  Div.  of  Agrostology,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


BEIiM  UBA  -GRASS  331 

necessity  of  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil, 
pastures  and  meadows  are  more  often  started 
from  cuttings.  To  prepare  cuttings,  the  sod  is 
gathered  and  cut  into  small  pieces  with  a  feed 
cutter  or  other  similar  machine,  or  a  wooden 
block  and  hatchet  can  be  used  if  only  a  small 
quantity  is  needed.  Since  most  of  the  pro  pa- 
gating  stems  are  near  the  surface,  it  is  necessary 
to  shave  off  a  layer  of  sod  only  an  inch  or  two 
thick.  If  cuttings  are  wanted  in  large  quantities, 
the  sod  can  be  plowed  and  the  roots  harrowed 
into  windrows  or  piles.  In  all  cases  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  allow  the  roots  to  get  dry.  The 
cuttings  may  be  planted  at  anytime  of  the  year 
in  the  South,  except  the  coldest  winter  months, 
but  the  work  is  usually  done  in  March.  If  a 
meadow  is  desired,  more  care  should  be  taken 
in  the  planting  of  the  cuttings  to  insure  a  level 
surface  for  the  mowing  machine.  The  cuttings 
are  planted  by  dropping  them  at  intervals  of  a 
foot  or  two  in  shallow  furrows,  and  covering  with 
the  next  round  of  the  plow.  This  can  be  done 
when  the  field  is  plowed,  the  cuttings  being 
dropped  every  other  round  or  every  third  round. 
Or  the  field  can  be  prepared  first  and  the  cut- 
tings dropped  upon  the  surface  and  pressed  in 
with  the  foot  as  they  are  planted.  For  meadows 
it  is  best  to  go  over  the  land  with  a  roller  after 
planting.    For  pastures,  when   a   smooth   surface 


332  FOJZAGE   CROPS 

is  not  necessary,  it  is  sufficient  to  plow  shallow 
furrows  every  two  to  four  feet  and  drop  the  cut- 
tings therein,  covering  them  with  the  foot  or  by 
turning  the  soil  back  over  them  with  the  plow. 
"Professor  Tracy  remarks: — 'So  easily  may 
Bermuda- grass  be  propagated  that  good  stands 
can  be  secured  by  scattering  a  dozen  or  more 
sods  to  the  acre  and  cultivating  the  land  in  corn 
or  cotton  two  or  three  years,  when  the  grass 
becomes  distributed  in  the  field.'  " 

Yield  and  value  of  crop 

Bermuda -grass  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  live- 
stock, and  in  all  stages  of  growth,  making  a 
palatable  and  nutritious  pasture  and  hay.  Owing 
to  its  drought  -  resisting  qualities,  it  provides 
pasture  throughout  the  entire  summer  season, 
which  ranges  from  seven  months,  in  North  Caro- 
lina, to  nearly  the  entire  year  in  the  far  South. 
It  is  not  desirable,  however,  to  graze  throughout 
the  entire  year,  as  grazing  naturally  reduces  the 
vitality  of  the  plant.  Neither  should  it  be  grazed 
too  closely  soon  after  planting,  as  this  has  a 
tendency  to  destroy  the  runners,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  formation  of  new  plants.  On  established 
pastures,  however,  close  grazing  is  desirable, 
because  the  pasture  is  more  palatable, — the  stems 
not  becoming   hard  and  wiry  and  less  digestible. 


BERMUDA-GRASS  333 

For  use  as  hay,  the  crop  should  be  harvested 
when  a  large  proportion  of  the  stems  are  in 
bloom.  The  number  of  cuttings  in  a  season  must 
depend  on  soil  and  season,  ranging  from  one  to 
four  per  year,  with  a  total  yield  of  one  to  three 
tons  per  acre. 

The  following  reports1  from  the  states  indicated 
show  that  Bermuda- grass  is  highly  regarded  and 
likely  to  prove  one  of  the  most  valuable  forage 
crops : 

"Alabama. — This  grass  will  grow  under  the 
most  flagrant  neglect;  while  care  and  cultivation 
will  bring  out  its  characteristics  to  a  marked  de- 
gree, and  will  repay  the  cultivator  for  all  his  ex- 
pense and  trouble.  It  is  an  excellent  grass  to 
prevent  the  washing  of  the  land,  for  filling  up 
gnllies  and  preserving  terraces.  It  makes  one  of 
the  best  lawns  on  account  of  its  smooth  and  regu- 
lar growth,  and  its  power  to  withstand  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  The  Bermuda-grass  is  not  so  difficult  to 
eradicate  from  the  field  as  most  farmers  seem  to 
think.  Close  cultivation  in  cotton  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  will 
destroy  this  plant. 

"Arkansas. — Bermuda-grass  is  the  best  summei 
pasture  grass  we  have  for  the  sandy  soils  of  south 
Arkansas,  and  is  one  of  the  best  hay  grasses  for 
all    parts   of   the  state,    except  the   northwestern 

\  Bulletin  No.  55,  Oklahoma  Experiment  Station, 


334  FOB  AGE   CROPS 

part.  It  is  not  generally  regarded  with  much 
favor,  but,  where  it  has  established  itself  and  is 
being  utilized,  it  is  regarded  with  great  favor.  On 
the  barren  soils  it  does  not  succeed,  but  it  suc- 
ceeds on  all  other  soils  whether  wet  or  dry.  It 
makes  hay  of  superior  quality  that  is  highly  rel- 
ished by  live-stock.  When  the  value  of  Bermuda- 
grass  for  hay,  pasture  and  a  soil-renovator  is 
appreciated,  and  the  proper  methods  for  cultivat- 
ing and  controlling  it  are  understood,  it  will  be  a 
highly  appreciated  grass.  Shade  is  fatal  to  the 
grass,  and  by  using  the  harrow,  then  oats,  then 
cowpeas  and  cotton,  the  grass  can  be  subdued  and 
eradicated.  To  start  the  grass  by  seed  is  uncer- 
tain. The  cheapest  and  best  way  is  to  start  to 
turn  up  a  Bermuda  sod  and  harrow  the  roots  into 
piles,  then  chop  them  into  short  pieces  with  a 
hatchet  and  sow  them  on  freshly  broken  soil  and 
plow  them  in.  The  roots  must  not  get  dry  while 
out  of  the  ground. 

"California.— This  grass  has  introduced  itself 
in  a  bold  and  uninvited  manner.  Its  perfect  adap- 
tability to  the  conditions  is  evidenced  by  the  thrifty 
growth  on  all  kinds  of  soil,  including  strong  alkali, 
very  dry  and  very  wet,  producing  more  than  any 
other  grass  (without  care  or  planting),  abundant 
feed  during  nine  months  of  the  year.  The  objec- 
tions to  this  useful  grass  are  mostly  founded  on 
the  prejudice  of  the  people,  which  renders  them 


BUBMUDAGBASS  335 

blind  to  their  own  interests.  Many  men  are  weal- 
ing out  their  lives  in  poverty,  trying  to  grow  fruit 
on  land  poorly  adapted  to  fruit-growing,  but  emi- 
nently adapted  to  Bermuda -grass. 

"Louisiana. — For  winter  and  early  spring,  Texas 
blue -grass  and  the  clovers  seem  to  fulfil  all  the 
requirements,  followed  in  summer  by  Bermuda- 
and  crab -grass,  the  two  best  grasses  we  have.  It 
was  impossible  during  the  wet  summer  to  restrict 
the  last  two  to  the  plots  allotted  to  them,  but  to- 
gether, they  covered  the  whole  area  of  the  (grass) 
garden,  yielding  several  cuttings  of  hay  for  our 
work  animals. 

"Mississippi. — This  grass  is  the  most  valuable 
species  we  have  in  the  South,  and  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  description.  It  succeeds  best 
on  rich  bottom  lands  and  on  the  black  prairie  soil, 
where  it  will  yield  two  cuttings  in  a  season,  mak- 
ing two  to  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  This  hay  is 
of  the  very  best  quality,  being  especially  valuable 
for  horses  and  mules." 

J.  S.  Newman,  in  Bulletin  No.  76,  of  the  South 
Carolina  Station,  says  of  the  plant:  "This  most 
valuable  acquisition  to  our  list  of  pasture  grasses 
seems  to  have  come  from  India,  where  it  is  called 
'Dhab.' 

"Until  its  great  value  as  a  pasture  grass  and, 
on  moist,  fertile  soils,  as  a  hay  producer,  became 
known,  it  was   regarded  as  a  pest  by  the  cotton 


336  FOB  AGE   CHOPS 

planters  all  over  the  southern  United  States. 
Many  plantations,  in  the  south  Atlantic  states, 
were  abandoned  on  account  of  its  prevalence  upon 
them,  which  are  now  yielding  more  profitable 
returns  from  Bermuda  pastures  and  Bermuda  hay 
than  were  ever  realized  from  the  same  fields  while 
cultivated  in  cotton.  There  is  a  well  authenticated 
record  of  13,000  pounds  of  Bermuda  hay,  per  acre, 
from  three  mowings  during  one  season,  on  the 
Oconee  river-bottoms  in  Georgia. 

"Farmers  who,  a  few  years  since,  dreaded  its 
appearance  upon  their  farms  as  they  did  Canada 
thistle  or  the  famous  coco  or  nut  grass,  are 
now  industriously  planting  Bermuda  pastures  and 
meadows." 

Meadows  of  Bermuda- grass  should  be  renewed 
once  in  three  or  four  years,  as  the  tendency  is  to 
become  sod -bound.  The  meadows  may  be  re- 
newed by  deep  plowing,  and  seeding  in  the  late 
fall  with  any  of  the  crops  usually  grown  for  spring 
pasture  or  soiling;  vetch  and  winter  oats  have 
been  used  for  this  purpose  with  great  success. 
An  abundance  of  seed  should  be  used  and  the 
land  well  fertilized  in  order  to  insure  a  vigorous 
growth  that  will  help  to  choke  the  grass.  The 
sods  and  roots  left  will  spread  rapidly  after  the 
forage  crops  have  been  grazed  or  cut,  provided 
the  land  is  naturally  fertile,  or  has  been  even 
manured  or  fertilized. 


BERMUDA-GRASS  337 

Methods  of  eradication 

"The  very  qualities  which  render  Bermuda  so 
valuable  as  a  pasture  grass  serve  to  make  it  an 
aggressive  and  pestiferous  weed.  On  account  of 
its  tendency  to  spread  and  insinuate  itself  into 
land  where  it  is  not  wanted,  and  to  persist  in 
fields  which  are  to  be  used  for  other  purposes, 
it  has,  in  many  cases,  not  been  utilized  to  the 
extent  that  its  good  qualities  would  indicate. 
However,  it  can  be  eradicated  from  a  field  with 
comparative  ease  by  proper  cultivation.  Since  it 
will  not  thrive  in  the  shade,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  smother  it  out  by  some  quick -growing  crop. 
A  method  recommended  by  southern  agricul- 
turists, and  which  may  be  modified  to  suit  con- 
ditions, is  to  plow  the  land  after  the  last  crop 
of  hay  is  cut,  if  the  field  is  a  meadow,  or  about 
this  season  if  it  is  a  pasture.  Sow  the  field  to 
oats,  wheat  or  other  thick -growing  crops.  When 
this  crop  is  harvested,  plow  the  land  immediately 
and  plant  to  cowpeas.  It  is  probably  best  to 
plant  these  in  drills  and  cultivate  them  until  the 
vines  meet,  after  which  they  will  shade  the  ground 
and  prevent  the  growth  of  Bermuda.  Usually 
this  treatment  is  sufficient  to  completely  destroy 
the  Bermuda;  but  if  not,  the  process  can  be 
repeated."  (Circular  No.  31,  Division  of  Agros- 
tology, Department  of  Agriculture.) 


338  FORAGE    CROPS 

RUSSIAN    BROME    GRASS    {Bromus   inermis)  (Figs.  62,  63) 

This  perennial  grass  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  in  1882,  and  is  now  widely  grown 
in  Canada  and  in  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  in 
the  western  parts  of  Minnesota,  also  in  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  and  in  parts  of  many  other  of  the 
western  states,  both  because  it  is  itself  a  good 
grass  crop  and  because  it  resists  cold  and  drought. 

The  habits  of  growth  of  this  plant  are  similar 
to  those  of  quack-grass;  it  has  creeping  root- 
stocks,  branching  out  in  every  direction,  and  these 
produce  at  each  joint  a  bud,  which  is  capable 
of  producing  another  plant.  It  grows  to  an  average 
height  of  about  two  feet,  although  under  good  con- 
ditions it  will  reach  a  much  greater  height.  The 
leaves  are  broad,  thick  and  abundant,  when  the 
soil  is  good.  This  grass  makes  a  large  yield, 
because  of  the  thickness,  even  though  the  height 
is  somewhat  reduced.  It  is  well  adapted  to  light, 
dry  soils.  It  starts  in  spring  earlier  than  any  of 
the  other  valuable  grasses.  It  matures  usually  in 
the  month  of  June.  It  is  a  very  .palatable  grass, 
all  animals  being  fond  of  it.  Because  of  its  habit 
of  growth,  it  makes  a  valuable  pasture  throughout 
the  entire  season,  and  is  also  useful  as  hay.  The 
yields  from  an  average  crop  are  one  and  one -half 
to  three  tons  per  acre. 

Bromus  inermis  is   adapted   to  a  wide  variety 


fc. 

J  > 

i    ' 

a    I    A*    '?Jb&\L    -'- 

»-        P           j*         "*_^-           s    - 

W\^Sfrlvl*      ^\ 

.. ,  -v-.H  y    •"■ 

-"'K  sftaP  sJKf   -     i 

]  Plffl'P 

IwT    \\    ■'('.'  il-  »\ 

\ffifflp' 

J|  ,tl UtfilWWiaH.  T 

ipa' 

Cta     \ 

4Sffifflr&i>'. 

i3             DB^^-J1 

^^S^T 

Fig.  62      Bromus  inermis. 
Photographed  by  H.  L.  Bolley,  North  Dakota. 


340  FORAGE   CROPS 

of  lands,  although  it  seems  to  do  very  much  better 
on  light  sandy  soils,  deficient  in  moisture.  This 
makes  it  a  useful  plant  where  others  would  not 
grow  well ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  it  will  not 
grow  much  better  on  soils  of  higher  fertility.  This 
brome  grass  is  not  well  adapted  to  a  rotation  of 
crops,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  the  land, 
although  this  is  less  difficult  than  in  the  case  of 
Bermuda -grass.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow 
for  a  long  period  without  breaking  up,  if  used  in 
rotations. 

Fertilizing  Bromus  inermis 

In  renewing  either  pastures  or  meadows  of 
Bromus  inermis  that  are  too  thin,  seed  may  be 
added  in  the  fall  and  lightly  covered  with  a  har- 
row, although  a  thin  stand  will  ordinarily  thicken 
up  sufficiently,  if  the  plant -food  is  ample.  As 
with  other  grasses,  fertilizers  or  manures  are 
beneficial,  and  top -dressings  of  manure,  either 
in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring  (four  to  six 
loads  per  acre),  or  top-dressings  of  nitrate  of 
soda  when  the  plants  are  well  started,  will  usu- 
ally pay  well.  When  lands  are  rich  and  moist, 
there  is  sometimes  difficulty  in  destroying  the 
grass,  when  laud  is  broken  for  other  crops;  but 
if  plowed  deep  and  followed  by  one  or  more 
cultivated  crops,  there  need  be  little  anxiety  on 
this  score. 


342  FORAGE    CROPS 

The  preparation  of  land,  and  seeding 

Russian  brorue  grass  does  not  grow  rapidly 
the  first  season.  Therefore  the  land  should  be 
well  prepared  and  free  from  weed  seeds  before 
planting.  It  is  more  desirable  to  sow  after  a 
cultivated  crop,  or  on  land  that  has  been  sum- 
mer-fallowed part  of  the  season.  The  good 
preparation  necessary  for  the  seeding  of  any 
grass  will  answer.  It  may  be  sown  in  fall  or 
spring,  although,  under  average  conditions,  the 
most  favorable  time  is  the  early  spring,  especially 
if  sown  with  a  nurse  crop.  If  seeded  in  August 
or  September,  on  land  that  has  been  well  pre- 
pared, it  should  make  a  good  crop  the  following 
season.  In  the  South,  it  is  preferable  to  sow  in 
the  fall,  owing  to  the  fear  of  destruction  by  the 
hot,  dry  weather  of  the  following  summer. 

When  seeded  without  other  grasses,  twelve  to 
fifteen  pounds  per  acre  is  sufficient,  when  in- 
tended for  hay;  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds  should 
be  used  when  intended  for  pasture.  When  it  is 
a  part  of  a  combination  of  other  grasses,  the 
proportions  may  be  two  to  five  pounds,  according 
to  the  object  of  the  seeding,  although  little  expe- 
rience has  accumulated  in  this  country  as  to  its 
permanent  character  in  pasture  and  meadows. 
Its  natural  tendency  is  to  crowd  out  other  less 
vigorous  grasses 


BBOME   GRASS  343 

Pasturing  and  harvesting 

For  pasture,  the  brome  grass  will  stand  close 
grazing,  particularly  on  good  lands,  but  if  pastured 
very  late  and  close  in  the  fall,  the  yield  of  the 
next  season's  crop  is  likely  to  be  reduced. 

In  cutting  for  hay,  it  should  be  harvested  when 
fully  in  head,  although  for  horses  it  may  be  cut 
when  the  blooms  have  disappeared.  Probably 
the  best  time  for  cutting,  as  for  other  grasses, 
is  when  the  plants  are  in  full  bloom.  The  cut- 
ting and  curing  does  not  differ  from  the  methods 
recommended  for  timothy,  or  the  other  better 
known  grasses. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

COMPOSITION,  FERTILIZER    AND    COEFFICIENT 
TABLES 

This  chapter  contains  tables  showing  the  aver- 
age composition  of  American  forage  crops  and 
feed  stuffs,  together  with  the  fertilizer  constitu- 
ents contained  in  them,  and  the  average  coeffi- 
cients of  digestibility. 

The  analyses  represent  the  average  as  near  as 
may  be,  although  it  should  be  understood  that 
average  compositions  of  products  of  varying  qual- 
ity are  a  guide  only  when  accompanied  with 
knowledge  of  the  possible  variations  that  may 
occur;  they  are  chiefly  useful  in  showing  differ- 
ences in  the  composition  of  groups,  rather  than 
giving  exact  information  as  to  what  may  be  ex- 
pected under  different  conditions.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  case  of  crops  used  for  green 
forage,  as  the  range  in  content  of  dry  matter  is 
very  wide,  owing  to  the  necessity  of  beginning  to 
harvest  when  the  plants  are  immature  and  con- 
tinuing it  so  long  as  they  remain  palatable.  The 
composition  of  fine  feeds  also  varies  widely, 
although  it  is  possible  now  to  so  classify  as  to 
eliminate   the  variations  that  formerly  existed. 

(344) 


COMPOSITION  TABLES  345 

The  tables  showing  the  average  fertilizer  ingre- 
dients of  fodders  and  feeds  are  also  subject  to  the 
same  criticism,  although  not  to  the  same  degree. 

These  data  are  of  special  service,  in  the  case 
of  farm  crops,  in  showing  the  relations  between 
the  different  classes,  and,  in  the  case  of  fine  feeds 
(which  are  not  forage-crop  products) ,  in  indicat- 
ing the  gains  or  losses  that  may  be  incurred  in 
the  exchange  of  home-grown  herbage  feeds  for 
the  more  concentrated  refuse  or  by-products. 

The  average  coefficients  of  digestibility  are  also 
subject  to  variations,  as  must  be  apparent  to 
those  who  give  the  matter  consideration.  They 
are  to  be  used  as  guides  only,  and  not  as  absolute 
facts. 

The  data  contained  in  these  various  tables 
have  been  derived  from  a  number  of  sources,  but 
mainly  from  tabulations  of  analyses  made  by  the. 
various  experiment  stations  of  this  country.  The 
coefficients  of  digestibility  are  the  averages  of 
American  digestion  experiments  contained  in  the 
report  of  the  Hatch  Experiment  Station  of  Massa- 
chusetts, for  1906. 

PLAN    OF    TABLES    I    AND    II 

1.   Green  fodder,  pp.  347,  358. 

A.  Cereals  and  grasses. 

B.  Legumes. 

C.  Combination  crops. 

D.  Miscellaneous. 


346  FORAGE    CROPS 

2.  Silage,  pp.  349,  359. 

3.  Hay  and  dried  coarse  fodder,  pp.  349,  359. 

A.  Cereals. 

B.  Grasses — hay. 

C.  Legumes — hay. 

D.  Miscellaneous. 

E.  Straw. 

4.  Roots,  pp.  351,  361. 

5.  Grains  and  other  seeds,  pp.  351,  361. 

6.  Oil  cake  meals,  pp.  352,  362. 

7.  Com  products,  pp.  352,  362. 

8.  Oat  products,  pp.    353,  363. 

9.  Wheat  products,  pp.  354,  363. 

10.  Eye,  buckwheat,  rice,  etc.,  pp.  354,  363. 

11.  Brewery  and  distillery  products,  pp.  355,  364. 

12.  Feed  mixtures,  pp.  355,  364. 

13.  Stock,  calf  and  poultry  mixtures,  pp.  356,  365. 


PLAN    OF     TABLE    III 

I.  Experiments  with  Ruminants 

1.  Green  fodders,  p.  366. 

A.  Cereals  and  grasses. 

B.  Legumes. 

2.  Silage,  p.  367. 

3.  Hay  and  dried  coarse  fodders ,  p.  368. 

A.  Cereal  fodders. 

B.  Grasses  and  millets. 

C.  Legumes. 

D.  Miscellaneous. 

4.  Boots  and  tubers,  p.  370. 

5.  Concentrated  feed  stuffs,  p.  370. 

A.  Protein. 

B.  Starchy  materials. 
II.  Experiments  with  Swine. 

III.  Experiments  with  Horses. 

IV.  Experiments  with  Poultry. 


C OMPO SIT1  ON  TA  li  L  E 8 


347 


TABLE  I 
Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds 


Pounds  per  hundred 


1.  Green  Fodder. 
a.  Cereals  and  Grasses. 

Corn  (Maize) 

White    Thoroughbred 

Flint  corn 

Southern  White  corn 

Sweet  corn   

Sweet  corn,  Stowell's 

Evergreen 

Teosinte 

Rural  B  ranching 

doura , 

Yellow  milo  maize  ... 

Sorghum 

Sorghum,  Early  Am- 
ber   

Sorghum,    Early 

Orange , 

Sugar-cane . . 

Japan  millet , 

Japan  broom-corn 

millet 

Barnyard  millet 

Pearl  millet 

Common  millet 

CanaryBird  Seed 

millet 

Early  Harvest  millet. 

Golden  millet 

Hungarian  grass 

Millet 

Hog  millet 

Broom-corn  millet  ... 

Red  kafir  corn 

White  kafir  corn 

Rye 

Barley 

Wheat 


77.4 

80.3 
73.5 
79.1 

77.9 
90.1 

85.9 
83.2 
76.3 

85.2 

83.2 
84.2 
79.9 

78.7 
84.8 
81.5 
80.0 

80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
71.1 
80.0 
80.0 
78.0 
81.6 
83.4 
81.9 
70.0 
77.3 


1.3 

0.9 
1.0 
1.3 

1.2 
1.4 

1.3 
1.5 

1.1 

1.2 

1.5 
l.l 


1.6 
1.4 
1.2 
1.7 
1.1 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
1.8 


1.6 

1.7 
1.5 
1.9 

1.8 
1.4 

1.7 
1.7 
1.2 

1.4 

1.7 
1.2 

1.8 

2.4 
1.5 
1.2 
1.5 

1.0 
1.1 
0.8 
3.1 
1.1 
1.5 
1.6 
1.8 
1.9 
2.1 
2.8 
2.4 


3.8 
5.3 
4.4 

4.5 
2.7 

4.7 
5.5 
5.8 

4.0 


4.0 

.").!) 

6.2 
4.5 
6.2 
6.5 

7.1 
7.4 
7.0 
9.2 
5.3 
6.5 
7.5 
4.8 
4.6 
4.:: 
7.0 
5.9 


14.0 

12.7 
17.7 
12.8 

14.0 
4.1 

6.0 

7.5 

15.2 

7.7 

7.5 

0.0 

10.4 

10.3 
7.1 
9.3 

10.5 

10.0 

!).7 
10.7 
14.2 
11.7 
10.2 
10.4 
9.9 
8.0 

!u; 

11.4 
11.9 


0.5 

0.6 
1.0 
0.5 

0.6 
0.3 

0.4 
0.6 
0.4 

0.5 

0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

0.6 
0.5 
0.3 
0.3 

0.3 
0.4 
0.3 
0.7 
0.8 
0.4 
0.5 
0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


348  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  op  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Green  Fodders  —  Cereals 
and  Grasses,  continued. 

Oats 

Pasture  grass 

Mixed  grasses  and 

clover 

Johnson  grass 

Orchard -grass 

Tall  oat-grass 

Italian  rye-grass 

b.  Legumes. 

Red  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Mammoth  Ked  clover 

Alsike  clover 

Sweet  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Canada  field  pea 

Soybean 

Velvet  bean 

Sand  vetch 

Spring  vetch 

Kidney  vetch 

Rape 

Horse  bean 

Flat  pea 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Sulla  

c.  Combination  Crops. 

Oats  and  peas 

Barley  and  peas 

Corn  and  peas 

Sweet  corn  and  peas.. 

Millet  and  peas 

Sorghum  and  peas  ... 

Corn  and  soybean  

Barley  and  vetch 

Oats  and  vetch  (1-1).. 


i 

7 

2 
1 

8 

4 

24 

43 

4 

4 

4 

4 

35 

32 

2(5 

20 

1 

14 

4 

1 

5 

1 

2 

1 

3 

2 

7 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
2 
3 


Pounds  per  hundred 


75.0 
63.1 

75.0 
75.0 
73.0 
70.0 
73.2 


70.8 
84.0 
80.0 
74.8 
80.0 
77.5 
84.4 
84.7 
75.1 
82.2 
85.3 
85.0 
85.0 
85.7 
85.0 
85.0 
75  0 
85.0 
75.0 


79  7 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 


1.7 
3.2 

1.6 
1.4 
2.0 
1.6 

2.5 


2.1 
1.4 
1.9 
2.0 
1.9 
1.9 
1  9 
1.3 
2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
1.4 
2.0 
2.5 
0.9 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
2.3 


1.6 
1.6 
1.8 
1.5 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
1.8 


3.1 

5.6 

2.9 
1.2 
2.6 
2.3 

3.1 

4.4 
3.0 
3.0 
3.9 
3.8 
3.6 
3.9 
2.8 
4.0 
3.5 
3.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.2 
2.5 
4.4 
4.4 
2.2 
4.3 

2.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
2.4 
1.6 
2.6 
2  8 
3.0 


8.0 
7.4 

8.0 
8.9 
8.2 
1(1.8 
6.8 


8.1 
4.1 

5.8 
7.4 
6.3 
6.3 
3.6 
4.4 
6.7 
5.1 
4.0 
4.5 
2.3 
2.1 
4.3 
3.7 
6.0 
4.4 
s  9 


6.1 
6.8 
5.3 
4.8 
7.5 
6.5 
5.0 
6.5 
6.3 


11.5 
19.2 

11.7 
13.2 
13.3 
14.7 
13.3 

13.5 

7.0 
8.9 

11.0 
7.4 

10.1 
6.8 
6.3 

10.6 
6.6 
4.6 
6.1 
7.4 
7.0 
6.9 
5.0 

11.6 
6.5 

12.5 

9.6 

8  2 

10.4 

11.4 

8.0 

9.9 

10.4 

9.0 

8.4 


COMPOSITION  rL\  1  H L ES  ,' \A\ ) 

Table  I.    Average  Composiiion  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Gkeen   Fodders— Combina- 
tion Crops,  continued. 
Oats  and  vetch  (4-1)., 

Wheat  and  vetch 

Tall  oat -grass  and 

alsike 

Orch  ard-gras  s  and 

alsike 

d.  Miscellaneous. 

Apple  pomace 

Sugar-beet  pulp 

Cabbage  waste 

Carrot  tops 

Prickly  comfrey 

Purslane 

Spurry 

2.  Silage. 

Corn 

Sorghum 

Red  clover 

Brewers'  grains 

Rye 

Cowpea 

Soybean  

Soybean  and  corn 

Soybean  and  millet... 

Millet 

Apple  pomace 

3.  Hay  and  Dried  Coarse 

Fodder. 

a.  Cereals. 

Corn  fodder 

Corn  stover 

Oat  fodder   

b.  Grasses.     Hay. 
Mixed  grasses  and 

clover 

Orchard-grass   


118 

60 

6 


Pounds  per  hundred 


80.0 
80.0 

80.0 

80.0 

83.0 
90.0 
82.0 
80.0 
87.0 
91.0 
72.0 


79.8 
75.8 
72.6 
70.3 
80.8 
83.3 
74.9 
76.0 
79.0 
74.0 
85.0 


27.5 
40.5 
15.0 


15.0 
10.4 


1.8 
1.6 


1.5 


1.5 


0.6 
0.1 
4.9 
2.8 
2.8 
1  5 
2.6 


1.2 
1.0 
2.7 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
4.1 
2.3 
2.8 
2.4 
0.6 


4.6 
3.4 
6.9 


5.4 
5.5 


2.7 

3.4 


2.4 

1.0 
1.4 
3.6 
4.2 
2.3 
2.3 
2.9 


1.6 
0.8 
3  8 
6.3 
2.4 
2.8 
4.5 
2.7 
2.8 
1.7 
1.2 


5.0 

3.8 

11.7 


7.5 
7.0 


6.0 
6.4 

5.8 

6.5 

2.9 
2.5 
2  6 
2.7 


8.1 
9.5 
9.0 

11. li 
5.9 
6.6 
9.9 


1.5 

6.1 

1.6 

3.4 

7.0 

15.4 

5.6 

11.1 

6.3 

15.8 

8.6 

11.4 

45 

15  6 

5.8 

9.1 

3.9 

li.7 

6.1 

89 

7.3 

10.9 

7.2 

7.2 

7.." 

13.6 

3.3 

8.8 

22.9 

38.8 

19.7 

31.5 

25.5 

38.3 

28.0 

11.6 

31.1 

43.8 

0.7 
0.5 

0.5 

0.7 

0.9 
0.1 
0.3 
04 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 


0.7 
0.3 
0.9 
2.1 
0.3 
1.3 
1.5 
0.K 
1.0 
0.8 
1.1 


1  2 
1.1 
2.6 


2.5 
2.2 


350  FOB  AGE  CROPS 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  op  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Hay  and  Dried  Coarse 
Fodder—  Grasses,  Hay,  con. 

Timothy 

Rowen 

Hungarian  grass 

Short  sedge 

Creek  sedge 

Herd-grass 

Salt  marsh  hay 

Black  grass  

Marsh  rosemary 

Bog  hay 

Canada  blue-grass 

Kentucky  blue-grass.. 

English  hay 

Meadow  fescue 

Barnyard  millet 

Tall  oat-grass 

Italian  rye-grass 

Perennial  rye-grass  . . 

Red-top 

White-top 

c.  Legumes.    Hay. 

Red  clover 

Mammoth  red  clover.. 

Alsike 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Oats  and  peas 

Oat-grass  and  alsike.. 
O  r  c  h  a  r  d-g  r  a  s  s  and 

alsike 

Oats  and  vetch  (1-1).. 
Wheat  and  vetch 

d.  Miscellaneous.  Hay. 

Hairy  lotus 

White  daisy 


25 

29 

11 

1 

2 

1 

13 

7 

1 

4 

1 

3 

102 

7 

9 

4 

4 

4 

8 

1 


Pounds  per  hundred 


13.3 
14.0 
10.7 

8.5 
41.8 

75 
15. U 
12.6 

7.8 
11.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 


11.6 

15.0 

11.2 

7.1 

9.0 

8.7 

11.2 

10.5 

15.0 

15.0 
15.0 
15.0 


15.0 
15.0 


4.1 
6.4 
6.2 
10.6 
6.6 
4.8 
6.6 
7.1 
5.8 
7.0 
4.8 
6.4 
5.3 
7.1 
7.9 
4.6 
6.4 
7.9 
4.3 
6.0 


7.1 
8.2 
8.0 
9.0 
8.1 
7.8 
9.1 
7.1 
6.5 

6.6 
7.4 

6.8 


7.0 
6.0 


6.3 
11.4 

7.8 
7.3 
2.0 
6.3 
6.1 
6.8 
5.3 
7.4 
5.9 
7.7 
7.9 
5.8 

10.6 
6.4 
7.1 

10.1 
6.1 

11.2 


12.7 
13.1 
12.7 
14.1 
15.5 
16.5 
15.5 
10.3 
11.6 

10.1 
12.8 
14.5 


12.6 
6.6 


29.3 
23.9 
26.3 
21.3 
16.2 
26.6 
23  4 
25.0 
25.1 
25.9 
31.3 
30.5 
27.7 
32.2 
28.7 
30.9 
28.6 
25.4 
30.1 
24.4 


26.2 
24.4 
26.3 
27.3 
29.8 
27.1 
22.0 
28.3 
24.5 

27.6 
26.7 
27.2 


16.8 
30.7 


a  s3 


Kp 


45.1 
41.3 
47.3 
49.9 
32.3 
53.3 
46.8 
46.2 
54.0 
46.7 
42.1 
39.7 
42.8 
39.3 
37.1 
42.1 
42.2 
40.5 
43.9 
41.5 


40.0 
37.6 
40.0 
40.4 
35.7 
37.2 
40  0 
41.2 
40.1 

38.3 
35.8 
34.4 


46.1 
39.7 


COMPOSITION  TABLES  35] 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Hay  and  Dried    Coarse 
Fodders,  continued 
e.  Straw. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Oats  and  peas 

Buckwheat 

Barley 

Horse  bean 

Soybean  

Millet 

4.  Roots. 

Sugar-beets 

Mangel-wurzel 

Artichokes 

Beets,  red 

Yellow  fodder  beets  . . 

Cabbages 

Carrots 

Mangolds 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Japanese  radish 

Turnips 

5.  Grain  and  Other 

Seeds. 

Corn    

Sweet  corn 

Sorghum  seed 

Millet 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat 

Buckwheat 

Soybean 

Cowpea 


II 


1 
7 
4 
2 
5 
5 
1 
22 
6 
3 
1 
G 


Pounds  per  hundred 


11.2 

6.6 

8.1 

7.4 

9.0 

15.0 

15.0 

15.0 

15.0 


82.0 
90.9 
78.0 
88.0 
89.0 
90.5 
89.0 
88.0 
80.0 
80.0 
71.1 
89.0 
93.0 
90.5 


15.4 
11.0 
12.3 
11.5 
11.4 
12.0 
12.7 
10.8 
9.6 
10.9 


3.9 
3.3 
4.8 
7.2 
6.5 
4.8 
8.1 
6.1 
5.2 


1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.4 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
0.7 
0.8 


1.3 
1.9 
1.8 
2.9 
3.1 
1.8 
1.0 
2.3 
4.8 
::.3 


O    X 


4.4 

34.2 

3.1 

38.2 

4.0 

36.3 

4.6 

35.2 

7.8 

37.2 

6.5 

32.2 

8.3 

35.2 

4.7 

36.1 

4.1 

34.2 

1.6 

1.1 

1.4 

0.9 

2  9 

0.9 

1.5 

0.7 

1.3 

1.0 

2.4 

1.5 

1.0 

1.1 

1.4 

0.8 

1.3 

1.5 

2.1 

0.5 

1.5 

1.3 

1.2 

1.3 

0.5 

0.7 

1.1 

1.2 

9.1 

1.5 

12.5 

2.4 

8.6 

1.8 

11.6 

7.6 

11.3 

9.9 

10.2 

1.7 

10.8 

1.9 

10.1 

8.7 

35.4 

5.0 

19.5 

3.4 

44.8 
47.5 
44.7 
43.4 
38.8 
39.0 
32.1 
3(1. 3 
39.7 


14.0 

5.5 

16.9 

8.6 

7.5 

3.8 

7.8 

8.5 

15.0 

16.4 

24.7 

7.2 

5.0 

6.2 


68.6 
CI.!) 
71.9 
61.8 
59.5 
72.6 
71.0 
65.6 
26.2 
61. 4 


1.5 
1.3 
2.1 
2.2 
0.7 
2.5 
1.3 
1.8 
1.8 


0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.1 
0.7 
0.1 
0.4 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 


4.1 
7.3 
3.6 
4.6 
4.8 
1.7 
1.7 
2.5 
19.0 
1.5 


352  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


22 


Pounds  per  hundred 


("5  ^ 


Grain  and  Other  Seeds, 
continued 

Black-eyed  pea 

Hungarian  grass  seed 

Broom-corn  seed 

Rice 

Oats  and  peas 

Horse  beans 

Red  Adzinki  beans... 

Saddle-beans , 

Barley 


6.  Oil  Cake  Meals. 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed    meal   (un- 

decorticated ) 

Cottonseed  feed 

Linseed  meal    (old 

process) 

Linseed  meal  (new 

process) 

Flaxseed  meal 

Palm-nut  meal 

Corn-oil  meal 

Germ -oil  meal 

Blood  meal  (Armour's 

Edible) 

Cocoanut  meal 


7    Co  n  Products. 

Chicago  gluten  meal 
Cream  gluten  meal. 
Hammond  gluten  meal 
King  gluten  meal  .. 
Buffalo  gluten  meal 
Davenport  gluten  meal 
Globe  elnten  meal. 
Iowa  Golden  gluten 
meal 


144 


191 


12  2 

9.5 

8.9 

12.0 

9.9 

14.0 

14.0 

14.0 

12.0 


7.6 


10.4 
9.8 

9  3 

8.3 
8.5 
9.0 
8.7 


11.0 
9.0 


9.8 
7.4 
8.2 
8.3 
8.5 
7.7 
8.2 


3.3 
5.0 
4.5 
0.2 
4.7 
3.8 
3.6 
5.3 
2.4 


6.6 

4.9 
3.3 

5.5 

5.7 
4.2 
13.6 
2.4 
2.0 

3.1 
4.7 


0.9 
1.6 
1.0 
1.4 
2.8 
1.2 
1.5 

1.0 


21.6 
9.9 
10.7 
7.4 
16.7 
25.8 
21.0 
13.0 
11.2 


44.6 

25.3 

9.3 

33.9 

35.6 
23.9 
14.8 
24.8 
19.6 

84.3 
20.4 


3.r).9 
41.8 
28.4 
37.2 
26.0 
24.5 
25.9 

29.4 


4.1 

7.7 

"o.i 

10.9 
7.0 
4.0 
4.1 

5.7 


4.9 


18.5 
35.6 


8.1 
5.1 
22.8 
6.7 
5.7 


11.0 


1.9 
1  5 
0  9 
1.4 

6.8 
7.4 
7.9 

3.1 


57.2 
63.2 
*73.3 
80.0 
54.0 
48.6 
56.7 
49.4 
66.8 


25.8 

35.1 
38.7 

35.7 

38.1 

23.8 
37.7 
43.6 
41.6 

1.2 

40.6 


47.0 
32.1 
50.4 
33.2 
52.5 
54.6 
53.5 

46.6 


1.6 

4  7 
2.6 
0  3 
3.8 
0.8 
0.7 
14.2 
1.9 


10.5 

7.4 

2.7 

7.8 

32 
34.7 
12.6 
13.5 
22.4 

0.4 
4.3 


4.5 

15.6 

11.1 

18.5 

3.4 

4.6 

3.0 

11.6 


*Includes  fiber. 


COMPOSITION  TABLES  .Till 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  op  Fodders  *ni>  Feeds— Continued 


Corn  Products,  continued. 

Nebraska  glutei]  meal 

Pekin  gluten  meal 

Queen  gluten  meal... 

Roekford  Diamond 
gluten  meal 

Star  gluten  meal 

Warner's  gluten  meal 

Waukegan  gluten 
meal 

Hominy  meal 

Cerealine  feed 

Maizeline  feed 

Corn  bran,  fancy 

Corn  bran,  or  sugar 
feed 

Starch  feed,  wet 

Starch  feed,  dried 

Corn  meal 

Cob  meal 

Corn  cob 

Corn  germ  meal 

Corn  sprouts 

Corn  and  oats  (prov- 
ender)   

Corn,  oats,  barley 

Corn  screenings 

8.  Oat  Products. 

Ground  oats 

Oat  middlings 

Oat  chop 

Oat  hulls 

Hulled  oats 

Canada  oat  feed 

Cream  oat  feed 

Chester  stock  food  . . . 

Iowa  oat  feed 

Friends  oat  feed 

Royal  oat  fee*] 

Monarch  oat  chop  — 


a  s 


4 

86 
24 

8 

18 

28 

4 

2 

110 

18 
4 
2 
1 


Pounds  per  hundred 


8.0 

8.5 


7.6 

9.1 


90 
96 

6.8 
9.2 

8.4 
68.8 

9.1 
12.7 
12.6 
31.5 

7.2 

8.3 

12.0 
10.0 
11.0 


10.0 
7.8 
6.8 
7.4 

*7.3 

7.4 

*8*.7 

5.9 

7.2 
10.1 


1.3 


0.9 
1.1 


2.8 
2.6 
3.6 
2.6 

1.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.5 
1.4 
1.0 
1.6 
5.6 

2.2 
3.1 
2.1 


3.8 
3.8 

5.9 
6.7 

'.-,'.!)' 
8.8 

4.8 
5.9 
7.3 
3.4 


^ 

a 

fl  ?. 

o 

o 

£  i 

O. 

fe 

§J 

19.6 

6.3 

61.8 

26.1 

24.2 

6.6 

56.2 

27.0 

23.2 

6.5 

59.4 

17.8 

6.5 

62.8 

26.8 

11.0 

3.6 

<;:>  o 

10.5 

5.4 

(M.I 

9.9 

6.7 

65.2 

12.6 

12.2 

60.0 

10.0 

11.8 

62.9 

5.0 

•J.'.t 

19.9 

14.6 

6.7 

64.0 

9.0 

1.7 

71.0 

7.6 

5.6 

69.6 

1.5 

24.0 

41.7 

11.4 

7.8 

61.2 

26.0 

5.8 

52.0 

9.8 

3.3 

68.5 

It  4 

8  3 

112.4 

7.4 

2.9 

71'.  li 

11.1 

9.8 

c.o.:! 

16.3 

8.2 

56.2 

8.3 

22. 1 

53.8 

3.4 

30.7 

50.5 

16.2 

4.4 

28.4 

51.9 

7.1 

21.7 

51.8 

7.4 

11.1 

10.6 

18.8 

54.2 

8.6 

21.0 

55.2 

70 

24.9 

50.8 

8.9 

9.0 

(ll.fi 

3.0 
3.1 

2.8 

3.6 
2.4 

2  7 

3.9 
8  6 

7.8 
7.8 
3.4 

5.7 
3.0 
8.3 
4.1 
3.2 
0  3 
1(1  s 

2.3 

4.2 
4.8 
4.0 


5.0 
7.7 
3.1 
1.3 

7.(1 
!_'.  I 
"{'.2 
3.4 
2.!  I 
3.4 
2.8 
4.0 


354  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Oat  Products,  continued 

Vine  oat  feed 

"X"'  oat  feed   

9.  Wheat  Products. 

Wheat  flour 

Ground  wheat 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings, 

white 

Wheat  middlings, 

brown 

Feeding  flour 

Wheat  feed 

Wheat  chaff 

Wheat  bran  and  oil . . . 
Gluten  flour  wheat. . . . 
G  uten  meal  wheat 

in.  Rye,  Buckwheat, 
Rice,  etc. 

Ground  rye 

Rye  bran 

Rve  middlings 

Rye  feed 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Buckwheat  feed 

Buckwheat  flour 

Rice  bran,  or  feed 

Rice  polish 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  meal 

Barley  feed 

Pea  meal 

Pea  bran  

Bean  meal 

Peanut  bran 

Peanut  middlings  . . . 
Peanut  meal  and  hulls 


o  <" 

u    m 


Pounds  per  hundred 


6 

4 
190 

91 

57 
49 
35 

2 

3 


u 
<v 

"3 

"35 
< 

o 

Oh 

7.2 

5.7 

7.0 

6.9 

6.1 

7.5 

12.4 

0.4 

12.0 

12  0 

10.2 

11.2 

6.0 

16.0 

11.3 

2.7 

15.8 

10.6 

3.8 

17.8 

10.1 

19.4 

10.8 

4.3 

17.0 

11.1 

6.5 

4.3 
15.4 

5  5 

0.4 

84.8 

8.0 

0.9 

39.8 

120 

9.1 

11.7 

3.3 

13.9 

11.8 

1.7 

14.3 

12.0 

1.7 

9.6 

12.5 

4.2 

20.0 

13  6 

5.6 

30.5 

12.3 

4.0 

18.9 

14.1 

0.7 

4.8 

9.0 

92 

11.5 

9.5 

6.3 

14.3 
2.9 

8.5 

7.4 

14.4 

9.5 

4.5 

14.4 

10.8 

2.5 

27.4 

11.0 

2.7 

10.0 

10.9 

5.7 

23.2 

8.5 
9.7 

10.9 

2.1 

7.0 

25.6 
22.5 


1.8 
8.1 

3.5 

5.5' 

2.6 

5.1 

29.2 

0.2 

0.8 


3.5 
2.4 
1.5 
4.3 
3.1 
18.3 

13.6 

3.3 

33.5 

80 

8.7 

39.7 
3.8 
14.2 
39.3 
62.9 


°  £ 

to 

51.7 

2.8 

53.9 

3.1 

74.0 

1.2 

2.0 

54.1 

4.6 

62.5 

4.2 

57.0 

5.3 

5.3 

58.1 

4.7 

47.5 

1.4 

7.9 

8  i 

1.0 

48.9 

1.6 

2.1 

64.7 

2.9 

66.9 

2.9 

73.4 

1.8 

53.6 

5.4 

39.2 

8.0 

41.4 

5.1 

79.6 

0.8 

48.0 

9.3 

55.4 

11.2 

1.2 

47.6 

14.1 

58.6 

4.3 

Ku.  1 

2.2 

35.6 

1.0 

54.9 

1.5 

4.4 

6.5 

14.7 

2.4 

*Includes  fiber. 


COMPOSITIOX  TABLES  Xh, 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds- Continued 


Rye,    Buckwheat,    Rice, 
etc.,  continued. 
Peanut  meal 

( JOCOa   shells 

Cocoa  dust 

Cocoanut  meal 

Clover  meal 

Sugar-beel  feed,  wet.. 
Sugar-beet  feed,  dried 
Molasses  beet   feed, 

dried 

Marsden  feed,  \<>.  2.. 
Cornaline     (coffee 

hulls)     

Cotton  hulls 

Cotton  hull  bran 

Flax  seed  screenings.. 

11.  Brewery    and    Dis- 

tillery Products. 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 
Brewers'  grains, 

dried 

Brewers'  swill 

Distillery    grains, 

dried 

Molasses  grains 

Molasses  feed 

Molasses,  Porto  Rico. 
Atlas  gluten  meal  ... 

Ajax  flakes , 

Corn  protegran 

Sucrene  dairy  feed  . . 

Sucrene  oil  meal 

Grano-gluten  feed 

12.  Feed  Mixtures. 

Rlomo  feed 

Bibby's  dairy  cake  ... 
Boss    corn    and    oats 

feed 


107 
13 

119 

1 

9 

6 
2 
2 
3 
4 
1 
4 

3 
6 


Pounds  per  hundred 


8.0 
2.7 
7.0 
1.0 

89.9 

9.4 

7.6 


11.0 

11.0 

7.0 


9.6 
74.1 

8.5 
94.3 

7.0 
11.4 
10.8 
24.0 

6.5 

7.6 

10.2 

9.0 

6.0 

13.3 

10.0 


4.0 
10.7 
6.3 

0.8 


4.4 


6.9 


2.6 
1.9 
5.4 


6.9 
1.0 

3.8 
0.3 

1.6 

7.7 
6.6 
6.8 

2.3 
1.7 

5.7 

2.6 


11.6 


4.1 


49.0 
15.5 
14.4 
9.9 
5.8 
1.1 
8.1 

9.6 

4.0 

2.7 

5.3 

2.3 

15.7 


25.8 
6  4 

25.7 
1.9 

23.7 
19.3 
18.6 
3.1 
35.0 
32.4 
31.3 
19.6 
23.2 
26.9 

16..'! 
1!).7 

8.8 


3.5 
9.9 
5.5 
7.5 

29. 2 

17.9 

15.7 
28.4 

58.2 
39.7 

3.").0 
16.5 


10.6 
3.7 

13.6 
0.7 

12.8 
10.6 
8.3 


13.0 
12.2 
9.0 
10.7 
11.6 

10.9 
8.6 

12.3 


0   .-: 


fc    % 


24.7 
44.7 
42.7 
15.3 


59.5 

59.8 


39.0 

IS. 7 
44.5 


44.9 
12.7 

41.4 
2.0 

44.0 
48.2 
52.9 
66.1 

33.8 
36  I 

48.6 

41.4 


46.9 
14.9 


10.8 
16.5 
24.1 
65.5 
3.3 
0.1 
0.7 

0.4 
1.3 

0.6 

2.4 

1.1 

10.9 


2.2 
2.1 

7.0 
0.8 

10.9 

2.8 
2.8 

15.7 

12.0 

10.8 

7.0 

2.8 

11.5 


1.0 
9.1 


61.1  I      4.5 


356  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Feed  Mixtures,  continued. 

Buffalo  dairy  feed 

Buffalo  horse  feed 

Buffalo  stock  feed 

Cornelia  dairy  feed . . . 
Crackerjack  dairy 

feed 

De  Fi  corn  and  oats 

feed 

Diamond  corn  and 

oats  feed 

Durham  corn  and  oats 

feed  

Empire  feed 

Excelsior  corn  and 

oats  feed 

H.  O.  dairy  feed 

H.  O.  horse  feed 

Holstein  sugar  feed  . . . 
Imperial  dairy  feed... 
Marsden  feed.  No.  1.. 

Macon  sugar  feed 

Nutro-glen 

Proteina 

Parson's  Six-Dollar 

feed 

Puritan  ground  feed.. 
Quaker  dairy  feed 
Schumacher's  stock 

feed 

Speltz 

Star  chop 

Victor  corn  and  oats . , 
13.    Stock,   Calf    and 

Poultry  Feeds. 
American  calf  meal.  .  . 
Blatchford's  calf  meal 

Cut  hone 

American  poultry  feed 
H.  O.  poultry  feed  . . . 
H.  O.  scratching  feed 


Pounds  per  hundred 


7.8 

8.2 


9.0 


7.1 


11.1 

8.9 
8.3 
9.5 
8.0 
7.6 

*6.0 
8.9 
8.0 

11.0 

11. 1 

7.3 


80 
9.6 


9.0 
20. 0 
10.2 

9.0 
10.7 


3  8 
3.8 


3.6 


7.0 


2.6 

6.7 
3.6 
2.7 
6.7 

4.7 

6.6 

4.7 
2.5 


4.8 
3.9 


4.7 


5.5 
21.5 
3.7 
2.9 
2.1 


15.6 

13.3 

9.1 

22.7 

30.7 

8.7 

9.7 

7.5 

7.8 

9.9 
18.6 
13.2 
12.6 

8.3 
13.7 
14.0 
20.2 
21.8 


7.9        10.0 
39  7.5 

5.5        14.4 


12.7 

11.5 

8.5 

9.1 


17.3 
25.2 
20.7 
13  8 
17.5 
12.5 


11.8 
9.0 

17  6 
5.2 

7.6 

14.3 

8.9 

13.1 
7.3 

9.0 
12.0 

9.2 
10.0 
20.0 
12.0 
10.2 

7.4 
10.0 

17.9 
13.7 
15.3 

9.0 
11.1 
11.8 

10.5 


2.3 
4.6 

4  3 

4.7 
2.2 


fc  2 


56.7 
60.2 


54.1 
35.5 


59.7 
53.2 
61.0 
60.0 
56.3 

61.6 
53.9 
51.1 

51.1 
61.2 
53.7 

59.0 
62.9 

62.3 


50.6 
0.2 
61.5 
00  4 
68.4 


COMPOSITION  TABLES  357 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  Fodders  and  Feeds -Continued 


Stock,  Calf  and  Poultry 
Feeds,  continued. 

Paine's  stock  food 

Nutrium  milk  powder. 

Animal  meal 

Beef  scrap 

Raw  ground  bone 

Cut  clover 

Meat  and  hone  meal. . 

Meat  scrap 

Mutton  sera]) 

( Granulated  milk 

Bakery  refuse 

Cassava  starch  refuse 
Mellin's  food  refuse.  . 
Starch  refuse 


it; 


11.3 

4.8 
7.9 
8.0 

10.0 
6.0 
9.0 
7.0 

10.0 

13.0 

12.0 

7.0 

12.0 


Pounds  per  hundred 


10.1 


64.4 
6.8 
37.4 
17.6 
33.  J 
26.5 

10.1 
1.6 
3.9 

1.8 


11.3 
33.8 

38.0 
55.5 
23.9 
17.!) 
39.5 
50.8 
39.9 
35.it 

8.0 
0.8 
11.1 
4.8 


10.1 

■hi  9 

3.4 

20.5 

41.8 

6.3 

4.5 

5  3 

18.1 

0.3 

63.0 

6  1 

7.s  8 

7.1 

67.2 

3.8 

76.3 

10.3 
0.7 
10.4 
15.0 
0.3 
3.0 
10.8 
18.1 
14.7 
9.6 

5.6 
0.7 

3.4 
1.3 


358 


FORAGE  CROPS 


TABLE  II 

Fertilizer  Ingredients  op  Fodders  and  Feeds 


o   g 
'-    f. 

§  3 

Pounds  per  hundred 

ou 
| 

Ms 

a  a 

en  cS 

O 

.a 

CM 

CO 

O 

PL. 

1.  Gkeen  Fodder 

45 

45 

1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
8 
1 
1 
3 
2 
4 
7 
1 
11 
1 
1 
3 

20 

3 

12 

C 

1 

33 

20 

14 

39 

1 

0.33 

0.33 
0.26 
0.24 
0.28 
0.35 
0.28 
0.27 
0.29 
0.30 
0.32 
0.64 
0.32 
0.27 
0.18 
0.29 
0.19 
0.20 
0.43 
0  90 
0.30 
0.32 
0.40 
0.38 
0.72 

0.54 
0.50 
0.47 
0.53 
0.43 
0.58 
0.47 
0.44 
0.G3 
0.55 

0.13 

0.13 
0.12 
0.10 
0.14 
0.06 
0.15 
0.11 
0.13 
0.12 
0.17 
0.16 
0.13 
0.11 
0.15 
0.11 
0.08 
0.09 
0.13 
0.26 
0  12 
0.17 
0.10 
0.10 
0.19 

0.12 
0.12 
0.12 
0.15 
0.12 
0.12 
0.13 
0.H 
0.14 
0.14 

0.31 

a.  Cereals  and  Grasses. 

0.31 

White  Thoroughbred  Flint  corn 

Southern  White  corn 

0.28 
0.24 

Sweet  corn 

0.38 

0.92 

Rural  Branching  doura 

0.46 

Yellow  milo  maize 

0.57 

0.45 

0.50 

Broom-corn 

0.70 

Japan  broom  corn  millet 

0.73 

0.43 

Barnyard  millet 

0.58 

Pearl  millet 

0.71 

Millet 

0.43 

Sorghum  

0.24 

Sugar-cane 

0.44 

Orchard-grass  

0.56 
0.74 

Hungarian  grass 

0.42 

Rye 

0.60 

Barley 

0  54 

Wheat 

0.60 

Oats 

0.56 

Red  clover 

0.67 

Mammoth  red  clover 

0.27* 

Crimson  clover 

0  39 

Alsike  clover 

0.50 

Sweet  clover 

0.40 

Alfalfa 

0.50 

Cowpea 

0.46 

Canada  field  pea 

0.42 

Soybean  

0.56 

Velvet-bean 

0.57 

*  Below  norm.'il  evidently. 


FERTILIZER   INGREDIENTS  359 

Table  II.   Fertilizer  [ngredients  of  Fodders  and  Feeds  -Continued 


Gkeen  Fodder— Legumes,  continued. 

Sand  vetch 

Rape 

Horse  bean 

White  lupine 

Yellow  lupine 

Flat  pea 

Small  pea 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Sulla 

Spring  vetch 

Kidney  vetch 

Oats  and  peas 

Oats  and  vetch 

c.  Miscellaneous. 

Apple  pomace 

( iarrot  tops 

Priekley  eomfrey 

Common  buckwheat 

Japanese  buckwheat 

Silver-hull  buckwheat 

2.  Silage. 

Corn 

Corn  and  soybean 

Millet  and  soybean 

Millet 

Sorghum 

Red  clover 

Brewers'  grains 

Rye 

Cowpea 

Soybean  

3.  Hay  and  Dried  Coarse  Foddeb 

Corn 

Oats 

a.   Grasses.    Hay. 

Orchard -grass   

Timothy 


18 


Pounds  per  hundred 


0. .", 

o.:!.-. 

0.41 
0. 15 
0.40 
0.75 

0  40 

O.liK 

0.36 
0.68 
0.36 

0.44 
0.33 

0.30 

0.21 
0.69 

o.::? 

0.44 

n.26 

0.29 

0.33 

0.65 

0. 12 
0.26 
0.13 
0.61 

1.01 
0.3H 
0.44 

0.71 

0.78 
1.87 

1.07 
1.08 


0.14 
0.12 

o.on 

0.05 

0.00 
0.10 
0.09 
0.20 
0.12 
0.12 
0.10 
0.08 
0.15 
0.14 

0.02 
0.13 
0.12 
0.09 

n  n 

0.14 

0.12 
0.15 
0.11 

0.14 
0.15 


o.i:. 

0.16 


0.28 
0.65 


0.33 
0.35 


0.52 
0.62 
0.21 
0.2C 
0.44 
0.32 
o.:?i 
0.57 
0.37 
0.58 
0.45 
0  28 
0.50 
0.30 

0.12 
1.08 
0.76 
0.54 
0.53 
0.39 

0.3G 
0.36 
(1.44 
0.62 
0.19 


0.40 
0.7."» 


1.00 
1.00 


1.62 

1.34 


360  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  II.    Fertilizer  Ingredients  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Hay  and  Dried  Coarse  Fodder— Grasses 
Hay,  continued. 

Hungarian  grass 

Short  sedge 

Creek  sedge 

Herd  grass 

Salt  marsh  hay 

Salt  hay 

Black  grass  

Marsh  rosemary 

Bog  hay „ 

Barnyard  millet 

Italian  rye-grass 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

Meadow  fescue 

Perennial  rye-grass 

Red-top 

English  hay  (mixed) 

Rowen 

Branch  grass 

Fox  grass 

6.  Legumes.    Hay. 

Red  clover , 

Mammoth  red  clover 

Alsike , 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Oats  and  pea 

Oats  and  vetch 

c.  Straw. 

Oats  and  pea , 

Wheat , 

Rye 

Oats 

Buckwheat , 

Barley , 

Sovbean  

Millet 


a  s 


Pounds  per  hundred 


1 .22 
0.16 
1.33 
1  00 
0.73 
1.05 
1.07 
0  84 
1.23 
1.29 
1.12 
1.20 
0.93 
1.16 
1.07 
1.34 
1.72 
1.06 
1.18 

2.09 
2.14 
2.04 
2.25 
2.48 
2.66 
2.48 
1.65 
2.00 

0.74 
0.43 
0  50 
0.65 

1.24 
0.95 
0.69 
0.68 


0.43 
0.14 
0.03 
0.35 
0.09 
0.23 

6.06 
0.18 
0.43 
0.53 
0.39 
0.37 
0.53 
0.33 
0.32 
0.48 
0.19 
0.18 

0.43 
0.52 
0.51 
0.25 
0.C2 
0.54 
0.66 
0.61 
0.60 

0.39 
0.13 
0.29 
0.22 
0.13 
0.19 
0.2f> 
0.18 


1.54 
1.13 
0.53 
1.57 
0.82 
0.64 

0.27 
0.73 
2.88 
1.19 
1.54 
1.98 
1.47 
0.95 
1.61 
1.58 
0.87 
0.95 

2.08 
1.16 
1.12 
1.06 
2.11 
2.46 
2.36 
1.81 
1.27 

3.20 
0.74 
0.79 
1 .22 
1.14 
2.03 
1.04 
1.73 


FEB  TI  LIZ  Eli    I NQ  /.'  EDI  E  V  TS  3G 1 

Table  II.    Fertilizer  Ingredients  <>k  Podders  and  Feeds— Coutinued 


Hav    and    Pkied   Coarse    Fodder,    con 
tinned 

d.  Miscellaneous. 

Broom-corn  waste  (stalks) 

Palmetto  root 

Spanish  moss 

White  daisy 

4.  Roots,  etc. 

Sugar-beets 

Mangle-wurzel 

Artichoke 

Beets,  red 

Beet s,  yellow  fodder 

Mangolds 

Carrots 

Parsnips  

Potatoes  

Japanese  radish 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

5.  Grain  and  Other  Seeds. 

Corn 

Oats 

Rve 

Wheat 

Buckwheat 

Soybean   

Red   Adzuki    bean 

White  Adzuki    bean 

Saddle-bean 

( lowpea 

Horse  bean 

H unitarian  grass  seed 

Broom -corn  seed 

Common  millet  seed    

Japanese  Millet  seed 

Rice 

Oats  and  peas 


Pounds   ]>'!•  hundred 


^:h 


0.87 
0.54 
0.61 
0.26 


0.26 
0.19 
0.46 
0.24 
0.23 
0.15 
0.16 
0.22 
0.29 
0.08 
I)  17 
0.19 


1.48 
1.81 
1.62 
1.73 
1.62 
5..'{0 
3.27 
3.45 
2.08 
3.12 
4.10 

1  59 
1.71 

2  no 

1.58 
1.08 

2.08 


0.17 
0.16 
0.07 
0.41 


0.12 
0.06 

0.17 
0.09 

0.11 
0.14 
0.0!) 
0.19 

o.os 
0.05 
0.12 

0.12 


0.01 
0.77 
0.81 
0.96 
0.7S 
1.87 
0.95 
1.00 
1.49 
l.oi 
1.20 
0.47 
0.72 
I)  95 
o  63 
o.is 

1.02 


1.87 
1.37 
0.56 

1.18 


0.48 
0.46 
0.48 
0.44 
0.56 
0.34 
0  46 
0.02 
0.51 
0.40 

o.:*8 

0.49 


0.36 
0.r.7 
0.52 
0.35 
0.59 
1.99 
1.55 
1.53 
2.09 
1.20 
1.29 
0.38 
0.52 
0.45 
0.35 
0.09 
0.92 


362  FORAGE  CROPS 

Table  II.   Fertilizer  Ingredients  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continue 


Pounds  per  hundred 


C.  Oil  Cake  Meals. 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  meal,  Undecorticated 

Cottonseed  feed 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 

Flaxseed  meal 

Palm-nut  meal , 

Cocoanut  cake , 

Corn-oil  meal 

Germ-oil  meal 

7.  Corn  Products. 

Chicago  gluten  meal 

Cream  gluten  meal 

Hammond  gluten  meal 

King  gluten  meal 

Buffalo  gluten  meal 

Davenport  gluten  meal , 

Globe  gluten  meal 

Iowa  gluten  meal 

Nebraska  gluten  meal 

Pekin  gluten  feed 

Queen  gluten  feed 

Rockford  Diamond  gluten  feed  . 

Star  gluten  feed 

Warner's  gluten  feed 

Waukegan  gluten  feed 

Hominy  meal , 

Cerealine  feed , 

Maizeline  feed 

Corn  bran,  fancy , 

Corn  bran,  or  sugar  feed 

Starch  feed,  wet 

Starch  feed,  dried , 

Corn  meal , 

Cob  meal 

Corn  cob 

Corn  germ  meal 

Corn  sprouts 

Corn  and  oats  (provender) 

Corn  and  cob  meal 


144 
9 
4 

191 
7 
9 
2 
1 
3 
1 

19 
1 
3 
2 

63 
7 

18 
2 
1 
1 

15 
G 
2 
2 
4 

86 

24 
8 

18 

28 

4 

2 

110 

18 
4 
2 
1 

88 

29 


7.14 
4.04 
1.49 
5.43 
5.70 
3.82 
2.69 
3.88 
3.97 
3.13 

5.74 
6.68 
4.54 
5.95 
4.16 
3.92 
4.14 
4.70 
3.14 
4.18 
3.87 
4.32 
3.72 
2.80 
4.29 
1.75 
1.68 
1.58 
2.02 
1.60 
0.80 
2.34 
1.44 
1.22 
0^24 
1.82 
4.16 
1.57 
1.38 


3  09 
1.85 
0.45 
1.88 
2.16 
1.30 
1.10 
1.60 
1.40 
0.91 

0.34 
0.31 
0.50 
0.66 
1.15 

6.62 

0.43 
0.44 

6.37 

6.33 

0.32 

1*4*6 
1.27 
1.41 
1.01 
0.22 
0.05 

6.63* 
0.55 
0.07 
0.39 
1.54 
0.71 
0.56 


1.82 
1.48 
1.10 
1.31 
1.49 
0.93 
0.50 
2.40 
0.18 
0.08 

0.06 
0.06 
0.08 
0.06 
0.57 

6**2 
0.08 
0.08 

0.04 


0.05 

0*75 
0.67 
0.78 
0.62 
0.09 
0.02 

6.37 
0.46 
0.29 
0.21 
1.84 
0.44 
0.46 


FERTILIZER   INGREDIENTS  363 

Table  II     Fertilizer  Ingredients  of  Fodders  am.  Feeds— Continued 


8.  Oat  Products. 

Ground  oats 

Oat  middlings , 

<  )at  chop   , 

Oat  hulls , 

Hulled  oats 

Canada  oat  feed  . . . 
('ream  oat  feed 
Chester  stock  food, 
Friend's  oat  feed. .. 

Iowa  oat.  feed , 

Monarch  oat  chop  . , 

Royal  oat  feed 

Vim  oat  feed    , 

"X"oat  feed 

9.  Wheat  Products. 


Wheat  flour 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings,  white. 
Wheat  middlings,  brown 

Feeding1  flour,  dark 

Wheat  feed 

Wheat  chaff 

Damaged  wheat 


10.  Rye,  Buckwheat,  Rice,  etc. 


Rye  bran   

Rye  middlings 

Rye  feed 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Buckwheat  feed 

Buckwheat  flour 

Buckwheat  hulls 

Rice  bran 

Rice  polish 

Rice  hulls 

Barley  feed 

Ground  barley 

Pea  meal 


e  « 


6 

190 
91 
57 
49 
3ff 


rounds  per  hundred 


1.78 
2.61 
1.34 
0.E4 
2.59 
0.71 
1.14 
1.18 
1.38 
1.70 
1.42 
1.32 
1.12 
1.20 


1.92 
2.56 
2.53 
2.85 
3.18 
2.72 
0.69 
2.26 


2.25 
2.29 
L54 
.'{.20 
1.88 
3.02 
0.77 
0.49 
0.71 
2.29 
0.58 
2.30 
1.56 
4.39 


0.76 

1.27 
0.66 

0.24 

6.31 
0.56 

6.62 

0.48 
0.63 
0  18 
0.56 

0.61 


2.20 
2.92 
1.34 
1.87 
2.14 
2.04 
0.95 
0.8:* 


1.54 
0.56 

0.77 
1.77 
2.60 
1.58 
0.52 
0.07 
0.29 
3.29 
0.17 
1.29 
0  66 
0.91 


0.50 
0.72 
0.69 
0.52 

0.62 
0.66 

0.65 
0.53 
0.46 
0.70 
0  69 
0.7:; 


1.50 
1.57 
0.70 
0.94 
1.09 
0.54 
0.56 
0.51 


0.95 
0.4«l 
0  47 
0.93 
1.33 
1.05 
M6 
0.52 
0.24 
1.19 
0.14 
(i  90 
0.34 
0.!)!) 


364  f  on  age  chops 

Table  II.    Fertilizer  Ingredients  of  Fodders  and  Feeds — Continued 


Rye,  Buckwheat,  Rice,  etc.,  continued 

Pea  teed 

Bean  meal 

Peanut  meal  and  hulls 

Peanut  feed 

Peanut  husks 

Cocoa  shells 

Cocoa  dust 

Clover  meal 

Sugar-beet  feed,  dry 

Molasses  beet  feed,  dried 

Cotton  hulls 

11.  Brewery    and    Distillery     Pro 

ducts. 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

Brewers'  grains,  dried , 

Distillery  grains,  dried , 

Molasses  grains , 

Molasses  feed , 

Molasses,  Porto  Rico , 

Ajax  flakes 

Corn  protegran 

Sucrene  dairy  feed 

(irano  gluten  feed 

12.  Feed  Mixtures. 

Bibby's  dairy  cake 

Blomo  feed  

Blood  meal,  Armour's 

Boss  corn  and  oats  . .  . : 

Buffalo  dairy  feed 

Buffalo  horse  feed 

( !ornelia  dairy  feed 

Crackerjack  dairy  feed 

Empire  feed 

Kxcfdsior  corn  and  oats  feed   

H.  O.  dairy  feed 

H.  O.  horse  feed 

Imperial  dairy  feed 


107 
13 

119 
9 
0 
2 
1 
4 
1 
4 
C 


Pounds  per  hundred 


2.39 
3.72 
1.13 

1.40 

0.80 
2.48 

2.30 

0.93 
1.29 
1.54 

0.75 


4.13 
1.02 
4.11 
3  79 
3.09 
2.98 
0.51 
5.19 
5.01 
3.14 
4.30 


2.94 
2.61 
13.55 
1.40 
2.49 
2.13 
3. 03 
4.92 
1.25 
1.58 
2.98 
2.11 
1.32 


0.72 
0.94 
0.15 
0.23 
0.13 
1.14 
1.34 

0.24 
0.15 

0.18 


1.G1 
0.26 
1.01 
0.60 
0.85 
0.82 
0.12 
0.68 
0.58 
0.60 
0.05 


2.07 
0.45 
0.26 
0.88 
0.89 
1.01 
1.45 
2.24 
0.83 
0.99 
0  86 
0.99 
0.47 


0.72 
1.45 
0.62 
0.79 
0.48 
2.39 
0.63 

0.57 

1.81 
1.08 


1.78 
0.03 
0.08 
0.17 
2.11 
1.96 
3.68 
0.18 
0.11 
0.24 
0.19 


1.67 
2.54 
0.18 
0.63 
0.56 
0.70 
0.85 
1.70 
0.54 
0.73 
0.01 
0.60 
0.51 


FERTILIZER    INGREDIENTS  365 

Table  II.    Fertilizes  Ingredients  of  Fodders  and  Feeds— Continued 


Feed  Mixtures,  continued 

Marsden  feed,  No.  1 

Nutro-glen 

Proteina 

Puritan  ground  feed 

Quaker  dairy  feed    

Schumacher's  stock  feed 

Star  chop 

Victor  corn  and  oats  feed 

13.  Stock,  Calf  and  Poultry  Feeds 

American  calf  meal 

Blatchford's  calf  meal 

American  poultry  feed 

H.  O.  poultry  feed 

H.  O.  scratching  feed 

Paine's  stock  food 

Nutrium  milk  powder 

Animal  meal 

Beef  scraps    

Meat  and  bone  meal 

Meat  scraps 


Pounds  per  hundri  <l 


2. 10 
3.23 
3.04 
1.20 
2.I50 
2.03 
L.36 
1.4G 


2.77 

4.0:? 
2.21 
•J.  so 
1.99 
1.80 
5.4 1 
6.08 
8.88 
5.92 
7.63 


2.05 
1  02 
0.55 
0.98 
1.15 


1.45 
1.21 
1.32 
0  95 
1.98 


14.68 
8.11 


l.L'O 

o.;,x 
0.58 
0.89 

0.75 

6.60 


1.13 
0.91 
0.73 

0.48 
0.82 


366 


FOB AGE  Off  OPS 


TABLE   III 

Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Feed  Stuffs 
1.    Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  cent 

u 

,d 

u 

.    0 

0  . 

zr. 

,0 

0  « 

0! 

eg 

q 

'3     4* 

p.  p. 

a,   u 
P   2 

11 

>d 

13   t 

>> 

Q 

0  a 

B 

u 

t 

5 

+J     to 

5 

1.  Green  Fodders 

a.  Cereals  and  Grasses. 

Corn,  dent,  immature. 

68 

42 

66 

65 

71 

68 

Corn,  dent,  mature... 

68 

"72" 

34 

53 

57 

73 

74 

Corn,    dent,    mature, 

Band  W.,  coarse  . . . 

52 

.... 

24 

46 

59 

78 

Corn,  Eureka,  silage, 

just  forming  ears  . . 

67 

42 

67 

60 

72 

66 

Corn,  Sanford, mature 

69 

"i\ 

34 

52 

75 

71 

66 

Corn, sweet, milk  stage 

77 

77 

75 

81 

74 

Corn,  sweet,  roasting 

'72 

48* 

62 

60 

77 

74 

Millet,    barnyard, 

blossom 

70 

56 

65 

73 

71 

58 

Millet,  Japanese 

*64* 

55 

50 

62 

67 

68 

Hungarian  grass 

66* 

68 

63 

70 

67 

62 

Sorghum 

67 

46 
72 

59 
61 

74 
71 

74 
60 

Barley,  bloom 

67* 

Barley,  seeds  forming 

68 

*42 

69 

56 

74 

49 

Oat 

62 

60 

73 
79 
65 

55 
80 
74 

62 
71 
72 

69 

Rye 

74" 

69 

74 
55 

Grass, meadow,  young 

Grass,  meadow, young 

dried 

71 

71 

77 

73 

60 

Timothy 

64 

32" 

48 

56 

66 

52 

Timothy  rowen 

66 

72 

64 

68 

52 

•.   Legumes. 

Alfalfa 

61 

40 

74 

43 

72 

39 

Soybeans,    medium 

green,  blossom. ... 

63 

25 

77 

47 

71 

50 

Soybeans,    m  e  d  i  u  m 

green,  seeding 

65 

67 

28 

78 

45 

77 

55 

Crimson  clover,  blos- 

som   

69 

77 
67 

56 
53 

74 

•  78 

66 

Red  clover,  blossom.. 

66* 

65 

Clover  rowen ,  blossom 

61 

62 

52 

65 

61 

Cowpeas,    ready    for 

soiling 

68 

74 

23 

76 

60 

81 

59 

COEFFICIENTS 


367 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Peed  Stuffs— Continued 

1.  Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  cent 

u 

G        ;_ 

j 

g 

(V 

.   0 

p  a 

rt 

3 

p  2 

ft.9 

0 

a,    u 
c   <• 

>> 

c3 

P 

5 

.-    r 

c 

Green  Fodders,  continued 

Canada     field      peas, 

before  bloom 

08 

71 

82 

02 

71 

52 

Canada     field     peas, 

bloom  to  seeding  . . 

f.l 

37 

81 

15 

70 

55 

Spring  vetch 

02 

17 

71 

44 

70 

59 

Winter  vetch 

71 

85 

42 
63 

s:{ 
89 

63 

87 

77 
92 

71 

Dwarf  Essex  rape 

is 

Barleyand  peas, bloom 

05* 

54 

7."> 

52 

68 

59 

Oats  ami  peas,  bloom 

'to' 

08 

49 

74 

(it 

72 

i;j 

Oats  and  peas,  seed. . 

02 

47 

74 

55 

03 

in 

Oats  and  spring  vetch, 

bloom 

07 

53 

75 

08 

08 

47 

Winter    wheat    and 

hairy  vetch 

09 

44 

75 

68 

73 

57 

2.  Silage. 

Corn,  dent 

04 

70 

37 

49 

65 

69 

77 

Corn,    Hint,    mature, 

small  varieties 

75 

77 

05 

77 

79 

82 

Corn,    flint,     earing, 

large  

70 

72 

34 

50 

72 

70 

7:: 

Corn,     fine    crushed, 

steers 

04 

38 

75 

65 

70 

Corn,    fine     crushed, 

sheep  

54 

21 

64 

55 

68 

Corn,  mature,  fed  raw 

4.'. 

59 

71 

Mi 

Corn,  mature,  cooked 

39 

70 

7.~> 

Hi 

Corn,  steamed 

73* 

'7(V 

*48* 

55 

76 

70 

90 

Corn,  sweet,  mature  . 

08 

70 

54 

71 

72 

83 

Kafir  corn,  mature  ... 

55 

57 

28 

57 

62 

50 

Sorghum,  mature 

57 

59 

9 

58 

(it 

56 

Soybean  and  barnyard 

millet 

5!) 

57 

09 

59 

72 

Soybean     and      corn 

( 9-14 )   

09 
44 
50 

72 
45 
67 

42 
30 

63 
35 
66 

02 
is 
53 

78 

1:, 
(15 

83 

Clover  

45 

Soybean  

57 

Cowpea 

00 

57 

52 

72 

03 

368 


FORAGE  CROPS 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Feed  Stuffs— Continued 
1.    Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  cent 

u 
a 

a 

.2  u 

o  a 

CD 

6 

u 

p.  - 

1* 

0 

u 

<s 

6 

+3 

S  g 

O    X 

<D 

0 

Silage  continued 

Oats  and  pea 

63 
6G 
65 

62 
66 

70 
70 
67 
57 
59 
54 
50 

60 

55 

39 
55 
64 
56 
73 
56 
60 

67 
68 
69 

63 

71 

TO" 

55 
62 
54 
52 

62 
58 

65' 

56 
73 

61 

65 

52 
41 
26 

43 
23 

ii' 

'39' 

47 

30 
i'l 

52' 

25 

'69* 

58 
62 

75 
63 

58 

50 
45 

70 
64 

64 
36 
65 
53 

57 

47 

34 
51 

58 
60 
73 
18 
61 
69 
58 
56 
52 

61 
60 
65 

67 
63 

72 
76 
74 
64 
62 
51 
58 

60 

65 

33 
55 
68 
61 
76 
61 
61 
66 
59 
54 
60 

67 

72 
74 

62 
73 

71 
71 
68 
59 
63 
55 
53 

61 

59 

46 
58 
65 
55 
74 
61 
62 
64 
52 
49 
55 

75 

Corn:    1A    Sunflower 
heads  34A.    Horse- 

77 

Corn:    1A    Sunflower 
plant    34A.     Horse- 

74 

3.    Hay    and    Dried 

Coarse  Fodders. 

a.   Cereal  Fodders 

Corn,  dent,  immature 

Corn,  dent,  mature... 

Corn,  flint,  ears  form- 

65 
70 

67 

Corn,  flint,  mature... 
Corn,  sweet,  mature  . 

71 

74 
67 

41 

60 

Oat-straw 

b.   Grasses  and  Millets. 

Mixed    grasses    (8-10 
per  cent  protein  ) . . . 

Mixed    grasses,    tim- 
othy predominating 

Meadow,      swale      or 

38 

50 
45 
44 

56 

Wild  oat  grass 

Orchard-grass 

Pasture  grass 

50 
55 
67 
57 

51 

Rowen 

47 

56 
52 
57 

44 

Branch  grass  

35 
36 

COEFFIC  TEXTS 


169 


Table  III.   Coefficients  <>f  Digestibility  <>f  Peed  Stuffs— Continued 

1.    Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  cent 


■~  a 
C   p 


Bay  ami  Dried  Coarse 
Fodders  —  Grasses  ami 
Millets,  continued 

Pox  grass 

Salt  hay,  mixture 

Timothy 

Timothy,    cottonseed 

meal. 

Timothy   and   clover, 

poorly  cured 

Timothy  and  red-top  . 

Witch  grass 

Golden  millet 

Hungarian  ^rass 

Millet   

Kafir  corn,  fodder 

Kafir  com,  stover 

Sorghum  fodder, Min- 
nesota Early  Amber 
Sorgh  n  in       fodder 

leaves   

Sorghum    fodder  ba- 
gasse   

c.  Legumes. 

Alfalfa      

Soybean  

Clover,  jilsike 

( 'lover,  crimson 

Clover,  red   

Clover,  white 

Clover  rowen  

Cowpea 

Peanut  vine 

Spring  vetch 

Winter  retch    

(  Kits  ;uid  vetch 

Wheat  and  snml  vetch 
Oats  and  peas   


50 

55 
54 
61 
54 

f>5 
5(J 
(il 
57 

58 

G3 

111 


56 


69 
39 

1G 

'n» 
in 

8 
'21 

II 


P.  a 


19 


til 


53 


62 

60 
60 
66 
58 
67 
56 
66 
tit) 

61 


36 
28 
50 

;,'.! 

58 
12 
57 
19 
64 
50 
i.i 


47 


370 


FORAGE  CROPS 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Feed  Stuffs— Continued 
1.    Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  cent 

ri 

6 

0. 

,  « 

CJ    in 

!/) 

ts 

■£  a 

a 

p.  a 

efl 

bt   H 

*< 

a 

9 

a>  "5 

<S> 

£  8 

a) 

oa 

p 

u 
O 

p 
O 

O 

6 

Hay   and    Dried    Coarse 

Fodders,  continued 

d.   Miscellaneous. 

Buttercups  

56 
52 

57 

56 
51 

41 

07 

70 

Cottonseed  feed 

30 ' 

46 

55 

86 

Cottonseed  hulls 

41 

6 

47 

3,4 

79 

Saitbush    

46 

58 

3l' 

58 

72* 

66 

58 

8 
46 

49 

52 

White  weed 

67 

62 

4.  Roots  and  Tubers. 

Sugar  beets 

05 

99 

91 

100 

100 

50 

Mangolds 

79 

85 
78 
91 

75 
44 

43 

91 
91 
95 

Potatoes  

i:;' 

84 

Rutabagas 

87 

80 

74 

English  flat  turnips.. 

93 

96 

90 

100 

97 

88 

5.    Concentrated    Feed 

Stuffs. 

a.  Protein 

Soybean  meal,  variety 

unknown   

78 

90 

33 

71 

89 

Soybean     meal,    me- 

dium green,  coarse. 

90 

57 

91 

81 

93 

Bibby's  dairy  cake... 

70 

33 

66 

46 

81 

92 

Blood  meal,  Armour's 

8t 

Brewers'  dried  grains 

62 

81 

49 

57 

89' 

Buckwheat  middlings 

75 

36 

85 

17 

83 

89 

Cottonseed,  raw 

06 

68 

76 

50 

87 

Cottonseed,  roasted  .. 

56 

47 

66 

51 

72 

Cottonseed  meal 

79 

'88* 

*8t" 

84 

35 

78 

94 

H.  O.  dairy  feed 

65 

76 

35 

72 

84 

Distillers  '     dried 

grains, largely  from 

rye 

58 

59 

07 

84 

Distillers'    dried 

grains, largely  from 

corn 

79 

73 

73 

95 

81 

76 

95 
96 

Germ  oil  meal  

76 

'75* 

Gluten  feed 

86 

9:5 

85 

76 

89 

83 

Gluten  meal 

87 

88 

88 

93 

COEFFICIENTS 


•  >- 1 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Peed  Stuffs— Continued 

1.    Experiments  with  Ruminants 


Per  eenl 

X 

c 

.    u 

s 
b 

i'r  7? 

-. 

«  T 
O 

- 
•■c 
m 

-      D 

<4-< 

3 

U 

Concentrated  Feed  Stuff, 

continued 

Linseed      meal,      old 

process  

70 

89 

ri7 

78 

89 

Linseed     meal,    new 

process  

82 

7!) 

84 

71 

80 

89 

Mall    sprouts 

67 

68 

so 

34 

69 

100 

.Malt    sprouts   |  Mass.  ) 

82 

1!» 

JVt 

99 

S7 

Maize  feed  (Chicago) 

84 

SI 

72 

85 

90 

oat  middlings,  lino  .. 

!»() 

36 

SI 

49 

96 

94 

Pea   meal 

87 

'8S' 

83 

26 

94 

55 

( Jowpea  meal 

87 

33 

82 

64 

93 

74 

Rye    1' 1,    brau    and 

middlings 

82 

.•{.") 

88 

90 

Wheal  bran 

66 

77 

.'ill 

71 

63 

Wheat,  feed,  flour 

67 

70 

7!) 

70 



Wheat  middlings, flour 

82 

8!i 

88 

36 

88 

86 

W  h  o  at      middlings, 

standard 

73 

25 

77 

30 

7s 

88 

Wheat .     mixed     Feed, 

bran  and  middlings 

7:: 

7ti 

37 

78 

02 

77 

Wheat,    mixed     feed, 

adulterated,       a  ml 

corn-cobs  

02 

til 

:si 

<;;: 

28 

71 

92 

h.  Starchy  Materials. 

( ierealine  feed  

90 

80 

82 

95 

81 

( 'hop  food,  corn,  bran 

and  genus 

SI) 

07 

62 

si 

Corn  bran 

70 
59 

54 

17 

59 
65 

77 
60 

77 

Corn-cobs 

to 

Corn  meal   

ss 
7«.» 

90 

00 
5'2 

45 

92 

38 

!»I 

Corn  and  cob  meal  .  . . 

34 

Corn     and    oat    feed, 

Victor 

7"» 

71 

l- 

83 

Kafir  corn  kernels   . . . 

4!! 

11 

15 

Kafir  corn  meal  

66 

53 

77 

16 

White  Kafir  hrads   .. 

24 

54 

1  I 

"27 

::i 

31 

Dairy  ford,  Quaker  .. 

62 

52 

70 

:,;, 

59 

74 

FOE AGE  CEOPS 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  <>k  Feed  Stuffs— Continued 

1.   Experiments  with  Ruminants 


I.IINTENTKATK  D       Fe  El) 
STUFFS,  continued 

Hominy  meal 

Horse  feed,  H.  <> 

Alma  dried  molasses 

licet  pulp 

Blomo  feed 

Macon  su^ur  feed 

Holstein  stiijar  feed. . 
Suerene  dairy  feed. . . 

Oats,  unground 

Oat  feed,"  Royal 

Oat    feed,    excessive 

hulls   

Parson's    Six     Dollar 

feed 

Peanut   feed,  largely 

husks 

Rice  meal 

Rice  bran 

Rye  meal 

Rice  polish 


Per  cent 


-     0/ 


78 


:;i 


_ 

c  \ 

eS 

89 

92 

83 

80 

ni 

76 

IG 

82 

82 

81 

88 

TA 

95 

77 

89 

51 

88 

33 

92 

64 

81 

49 

9H 

92 

91 

78 

72 

92 

(14 

93 

74 

COEFFICIENTS 


Table  III.    Coefficients  of  Digestibility  op  Peed  Stuffs— Continued 

2.  Experiments  with  Swine 


Per  cent 

g  u 

&    "Z 
M   sg 

o  3 

1 

6 
p, 

1 

L    g 
c    ■< 

~  -. 
V    u 

a 

80 

83 
90 

70 

7:* 
90 

82 
66 

80 

83 
92 

77 

92 

in' 

1!) 

81 
86 
69 

88 

70 

68 
89 

St 

7d 
80 

7:5 

75 

49 
12 

38 
39 
29 
33 

7  s 

30 

CO 

37 
34 

S7 
85 
89 
!M 
84 
92 
95 
98 
71 
83 
87 
66 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 
Maize  kernels 

80 
10 
80 
82 
59 

Maize  meal,  with  cobs  . .    . 

Hog  millet  seed 

Pea  meal 

50 

00 

70 

Wheat,  shorts  (middlings) 

7> 

3.  Experiments  with  Horses 


Per  cent 

* 

a 

-   t, 

"S  ~ 

hi  cj 

5  a 

o 

n  "5 

'_ 

® 

0  S 

-.1  *a 

z    H 

u  s 

- 
3 

71 
8S 

50 
72 

70 
41 

26 

22 
33 
29 

::i 

58 

70 

68 
86 
82 
2  J 

31 

1  1 
43 

88 
96 

17 
79 
86 

17 

IS 

7:: 

Corn    stover,    minus    pith, 
Marsden's  

cu 

82 

80 

17 

374 


FOBAGE  CROPS 


Table  III.  Coefficients  of  Digestibility  of  Feed  Stuffs — Continued 
4.  Experiments  with  Poultry 


Corn  kernels , 

<  !orn  kernels 

Corn  meal 

Kafir  corn  kernels 
Kafir  corn  meal  . , 

Meat 

Oats 

Cowpeas 

Cowpea  meal 

Wheat 


Per  cent 


A 

6 

u 

l/l 

t- 

ee 

Gc 

efl 

be  *- 

'C 

r&     Oj 

05 

C    X 

S3  * 

o 

o 

%-, 

*£ 

50 

92 

84 

15 

89 

48 

91 

53 

20 

90 

4:5 

35 

90 

91 

74 

8 

71 

40 

18 

87 

44 

10 

88 

77 

89 

INDEX 


Adaptation  of  crop  to  soil  (see  Soil),  24. 

Afiican  millet,  103. 

Alabama; 

Bermuda-grass,  333. 

Experiment  Station,  23. 

Rotation  for  South,  22. 
Alfalfa,  17,  209-228. 

Rotation,  38. 
Alsike  clover,  240-242. 
Andropogon  Sorghum,  95. 
Arkansas: 

Bermuda-grass,  333. 

Balanced  ration,  28. 
Barley,  64,  65. 

Beardless  spring,  216. 

Nurse  crop  tor  alfalfa,  216. 
Barlcy-and-peas,  189. 
Barnyard  millet,  74-80. 

—  and  cowpeas,  190-193. 
Bermuda-grass,  328-337. 

—  pasture  from  cuttings,  330. 

—  South,  10,  328. 
Black-eyed  marrowfat  pea,  170. 
Black-hulled  White  millet  or  kafircorn, 

103. 
Bukhara  clover,  231. 
Broad  or  horse-bean  272. 
Kromua  inermis,  11,  338. 
Brome  grass,  338. 
Broom-legume,  173. 
Broom-corn,  '.•■">. 

—  millet,  7:;. 

Cabbage,  301-308. 
California  : 

Bermuda  t,'rass,  334. 

Continuous  cropping,  23. 
Canada  pea,  176. 

—  and  oats,  176. 


Canadian  Beauty  pea,  176. 

Carbohydrates,  28. 

Carrot,  288. 

Carter  Half-sugar  mangel,  280. 

Carter  Model  kohlrabi,  310. 

Catch-crops,  18. 

—  clover,  red,  235. 

—  clover,  crimson,  244. 

—  millet,  80. 

—  oats,  63. 

—  Pearl  millet.  88. 

—  rye,  49. 

—  turnip, 288. 

—  wheat,  59. 
Cereals,  17. 

Barley,  64.  65. 

Corn,  3,  132-152,  154-166. 

—  sweet.  143-146,  148. 
Kafir  corn,  9,  95-121. 
Millets.  73. 

Oats,  60-04. 
Rye,  4.  46-54. 
Sorghum,  '.I,  95-132. 
Wheat,  4,  56-60. 
OJuetoehloa  It, t!ira,  80. 

—  var.  Germanica.  81. 
Viridis,  81. 

Clark,  Geo.  E.,  on  mixed  grasses,  203. 
Classes  of  forage  crops,  6. 

Alfalfa,  17,  209-228. 

Alsike,  16,  240  242. 
Clinton,  on  millet,  83. 
Clover,  167. 

Class,  6. 

Crimson,  242-250. 
In  rotation, 17. 
Mammoth  red,  17,  239. 
lied,  3,  16,  24,  231-237. 
With  mixed  grasses,  194. 
With  oats,  20. 


(375  J 


INDEX 


Clover  with  corn,  21. 
—  with  corn  silage,  45. 

—  with  corn,  4. 
White,  251,  252. 

Clubroot,  cabbage,  306. 

Kohlrabi,  310. 
Coleman  sorghum,  127. 
Combination  crops  with  legumes,  175. 

— ,  warm  season,  190. 
Continuous  cropping,  23. 
Composition  of    forage  crops    (see 

tables),  317-365. 
Concentrates,  275. 
Condition  of  land,  18. 
Corn,  forage,  3,  132-152. 

Adaptability  of  varieties,  133. 

Class,  G. 

Dried  corn  fodder,  146-148. 

In  rotation,  17,  22. 

Main  crop,  22. 

Silage,  154-166. 

Stalks,  149-152. 

Stover,  149. 

With  clover,  4. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station: 

Cabbage,  304. 

Kohlrabi,  309. 

Root-crops,  275. 

Timothy,  320. 
Cost    of    nutrients    in    soiling    crops, 

32. 
Cover-crops  (see  Catch-crops),  18,  42. 
Cow  Horn  turnip,  289. 
Cowpea,  4,  17,  21,  22,  254-263. 

Adaptability  of  varieties,  256. 

Combinations,  190-193. 

—  for  green  manure,  257. 

—  for  silage,  193. 
Varieties,  254. 

Crop  combinations  with  legumes,  175. 

Urowder  cowpea,  254. 

Craeifera,  292. 

Cultures  of  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria, 
171. 

Turing  and  harvesting  (see  Harvest- 
ing), 25. 

Cuttings,  Bermuda-grass,  330. 


Dhoura,  95. 

Digestible  matter,  25,  27. 

—  blossom  stage,  25. 

—  nitrogenous,  28. 

—  non-nitrogenous,  28. 

—  relation  of  kinds  of  nutrients,  28. 
Dodder  — on  alfalfa,  216. 

Doura,  dhoura,  durra,  95. 

Dried  ration,  27. 

Dry  matter—  measure  of  forage  crops, 

2,  5. 
Dry  matter  (see  tables),  347-365. 
Dry-weather  plants,  9. 

West,  9. 

Dunkirk  clay  loam— for  hay,  321. 

Durra,  95. 

Dwarf  Essex  rape,  292. 

Early  Amber  sorghum,  122. 
Early  Orange  sorghum,  122. 
Efficiency  of  areas,  33. 
Egyptian  corn,  95. 
Euchlcena  luxurians,  94. 
Evergreen  broom-corn,  97. 
Excelsior  rye,  48. 
Extensive  system,  14,  17. 

Faba  vulgaris,  272. 
Feeding,  Principles,  27. 

Alfalfa,  227. 

Barnyard  millet,  79. 

Barley,  65. 

Barley-and  peas,  190. 

Bermuda-grass,  332. 

Brome  grass  (pasture),  343. 

Broom-corn,  73. 

Broom -corn  millet,  91. 

Cabbage,  301. 

Clover,  alsike,  241. 

—  crimson,  250. 

—  mammoth  red,  239. 

—  red,  236. 
Corn,  maize,  142. 

—  sweet,  145. 

—  dried,  147. 

—  dried  sweet,  149. 

—  silage,  165. 


IXDEX 


37 


Feeding  corn-stalks  or  stover,  140,  152. 
Foxtail  millet,  85. 
Japan  clover,  274. 
Kafir  corn,  97. 
Kohlrabi,  308. 
Mangels,  282. 
Oats-and-peas,  183,  1ST. 
Potato,  290. 
Rape,  296-298. 
Rye,  55. 
Sorghum,  125. 
Sugar-beet,  287. 
Vetch,  271. 
Fertilizers: 
Alfalfa,  212. 

Barnyard-millet,  7.".. 
Barley,  64. 
Bermuda  grass,  .'i.'io. 
Brome  grass,  .'{40. 
Cabbage,  302. 
Clover,  alfalfa,  212. 

—  crimson,  244. 

—  red,  232. 

—  white,  2.12. 
Corn,  13G. 

—  sweet,  144. 

—  silage,  154. 
Cowpea,  258. 
Kafir  corn,  102. 
Mangels,  281. 
Meadows,  :H7. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  201. 
Oats,  61. 

Oats-and-peas,  177. 
Orchard-grass,  67. 
Pearl  millet,  86. 
Rape,  293. 
Rye.  49. 
Rye-grass,  72. 
Silage,  154. 
Sorghum,  123. 
Soybean,  2G4. 
Sugar-beet,  286. 
Teosinte,  91. 
Turnip,  289. 
Wheat,  57. 
Fiuger-audtoe  of  kohlrabi,  310. 


Flint  com.  132,  143. 
Fodder,  definition  of,  2. 

Food  content  in  green  Btage,  i. 

Value  measure  of  forage  crops,  2. 
Folger  on  Borghum,  127. 
Forage  crops,  definition  of,  1. 

—  classes,  ti. 

—  groups,  <;. 

—  for   hay  and    for   improving   the 

land,  13. 

—  for  soiling,  27. 

—  rations,  4.'!. 
Foxtail  millet,  80-85. 
Furze,  173. 

Germination  table— cabbage,  kohlrabi, 

303. 
German  millet,  HI. 
Giant  rape,  293. 
Giant  rye,  48. 

Golden  Tankard  mangel,  279. 
Golden  Vine  pea,  176. 
Golden  Wonder  millet,  81. 
Goliath  kohlrabi,  310. 
Grain  farming,  15. 

Growing  rotation,  17,  18. 
ti rasses: 

Green  forage,  46. 

<  iroup^,  (i. 

In  the  South,  10. 

Bermuda-grass,  330-336. 

Brome  grass,  Russian,  3  -     I 

Italian  rye-grass,  7ti-72. 

.Meadows,  11,  311. 

Mixtures,  16,  '_'». 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  mj. 

Orchard-grass,  66  69 

Pasture,  8,  11,  311. 

Timothy,  lo,  15,  17.  320. 
Green  forage  grasses,  in. 
Green  field  pea,  176. 
Green  Scotch  pea,  176. 
1 1  roups  of  forage  crops,  6. 

Handling  forage  crop*    I  ee   Harvest 
ing),  26. 
Clover.  2t;. 


B78 


INDEX 


Haney,  Prof.  J.  G.,  103. 
Harvesting  and  curing,  25. 

Alfalfa,  221. 

Barnyard  millet,  76. 

Bermuda-grass,  333. 

Broine  grass,  Russian,  343. 

Clover,  alsike,  241. 

—  crimson,  245. 

—  red,  230. 

Corn  (maize),  141. 

—  dried,  147. 

—  silage,  157,  163. 

—  stover,  149. 
Cowpea,  261. 
Foxtail  millet,  82. 
Grain,  115. 
Japan  clover,  274. 
Kafir  corn,  99. 
Mangels,  282. 
Meadows,  310. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  208. 
Oats,  02. 

Oats-and-peas,  180-184. 
Orchard-grass,  68. 
Pearl  millet,  88. 
Rape,  295. 
Rye,  52. 

Rye-grass,  Italian,  72. 
Sorghum,  130. 
Sugar-beet   280. 
Vetch,  271. 
Wheat,  50. 
Hay  standards,  15. 
Admixtures,  1G. 
Timothy,  15. 

—  with  other  grasses,  16. 
Hay,  meadow,  12. 

In  rotation,  17. 
Yield,  14. 
Alfalfa,  228. 
Barnyard  millet,  79. 
Bermuda-grass,  333. 
Brome  grass,  343. 
Clover,  crimson,  249. 

—  red,  337. 
Cowpea,  202. 
Foxtail  millet,  85. 


Hay,  Japan  clover,  274. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  208. 
Oats,  03. 

—  oats-and-peas,  184. 

—  oats-and-vetch,  189. 
Orchard-grass,  09. 
Rye-grass,  72. 

Horse-tooth  corn,  154. 
Hot-weather  plants,  74. 
Humus,  13. 
Hungarian  grass,  81. 

Illinois,  corn,  wheat,  22. 
Improvement  of  rotation,  17. 
Improving  the  land,  13. 
Indian  corn,  3,  132. 
Indiana,  corn,  wheat,  22. 
Inoculation  of  soil,  108. 

for  alfalfa,  215. 

methods,  170. 

Iowa,  corn,  wheat,  22. 
Italian  rye- grass,  70-72. 

Japan  clover,  273,  274. 
Japanese  millet,  73. 
Jei-usalem  corn,  97. 

Kafir  corn,  9,  95-121. 

—  classes,  95. 

—  with  cowpeas,  190. 
soybeans,  190. 

—  for  grain,  115. 
Kale,  292. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station: 

Brome  grass,  338. 

Kafir  corn,  103. 

Sorghum,  127. 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  16. 
Kohlrabi,  292,  308-310. 
Lamson-Scribner,    on    Bermuda-grass, 


31 


Land 


id   seeding  (for   special   crops, 
see  Preparation),  23. 
Improving  the,  by  forage  crops,  13. 
Preparation  of  the,  41. 
Leaching,  18. 
Learning  corn,  99,  100. 


INDEX 


Legumes: 
Alfalfa,  200-230. 
Canada  pea,  1 70. 
Clover,  alfalfa,  209-230. 

—  alsike,  210-242. 

—  mammoth  red,  17,  239. 

—  red,  3,  10,  24,  231-237. 

—  white,  251,  252. 

—  with  grasses,  194. 
Cowpea,  1,  17,  21,  22,  254,  203. 

—  and  barley,  ISO,  190. 

—  and  oats,  176-186. 

—  and  vetch,  187-189. 
Borse  bean,  272. 
Rape,  293-300. 
Soybean,  201-200. 
Velvet  bean,  200. 
Vetch,  200-271. 

Leguminosse,  173. 
Leguminous  forage  crops 

Combination  crops  with,  17f>. 

Group,  0. 

Kinds,  173. 

Nitrogen-gathering  bacteria,  1G8,  100. 

—  amount  gathered,  172. 

—  soil  inoculation,  108. 
methods,  17(1. 

—  nodules,  168. 

Nitrogenous  food,  20. 
Lespedeza  .striata,  273. 
Lime: 

Alfalfa,  212. 

<  labbage,  305. 
Clover,  red,  232. 

—  white,  252, 
Meadows,  201. 
Pastures,  201,  325. 

Listing  107,  loo. 

Locust,  173. 

Long  <  Grange  carrot,  288. 

Long  White  carrot,  288. 

Louisiana,  Bermuda-grass,  335. 

Louse,  plant-,  on  peas,  183. 

Maize,  3,  17,  132-152. 
Succession,  21. 
Milo  maize,  05. 


Maize  with  e«>\\  peas  and  soybeans,  193. 

—  Long  Red  mangel,  279. 
Mammoth  red  elovi  i 

Maud's  Wonder  millets,  85. 
Mangels,  279  281, 
Marl  on  clover,  252 

Mastodon  corn,  154. 

Meadows  and  pastures,  11-311. 

Bermuda-grass,  330. 

Group,  0. 

Mixtures,  312  314. 
Melilotus,  231. 
Millets,  73. 

Barnyard,  74-80. 

Foxtail,  80-85. 

Hungarian  grass,  82. 

Japanese,  73. 

Japanese  broom-corn,  90-92. 

Kafir  corn,  95-121. 

Milo  maize,  it."). 

Pearl,  86  90. 

Sorghum,  122-131. 

Teosinte,  94. 

M  ilo  maize,  95. 

Minnesota,  I'rome  grass,  338. 
Mississippi,  Bermuda-grass,  335. 

<  lorn,  wheat,  22. 

Rotations,  22. 
Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  194 

Mixtures  : 
Grasses  and  clover,  198. 
For  meadow,  312,  314. 
Permunenl  pasture,  324. 
Timothy  and  other  grasses,  16,  24. 

Nebraska,  brome  grass,  338. 

Newman,  J.  S.,  on  Bermuda-grass,  ■'::"•. 

Nitrate  of  soda.    (See  list  under  ferti 

lizers  ) 
Nil  rog(  u  in  food,  6. 

Cultures,  171. 
Nitrogen  gathering  bacteria,  ll  - 

Legumes,  168. 

Soil  inoculation,  16H 
Nitrogenous  digestible  matter,  28 

Legumes,  29. 

Nodulev.   |69. 


380 


INDEX 


Non-nitrogenous  substances,  food,  28. 
Non-saccharine  sorghum,  9,  95,  103. 
North  Dakota,  brome  grass,  338. 
Nurse  crops    for   clover  and   grasses, 
195. 
—  for  alfalfa,  216. 
Nutrients,  28. 
Cost  in  soiling  crops,  32. 
Definition,  5. 
For    nitrogen-gathering    organisms, 

171. 
Yield  of,  in  various  crops  : 
Alfalfa,  224. 
Barnyard  millet,  80. 
Barley,  65. 
Barley-and-peas,  190. 
Broom-corn  millet,  92. 
Cabbage,  308. 
Clover  alfalfa,  224. 

—  alsike,  212. 

—  mammoth  red,  239. 
—red,  237. 
—crimson,  245,  249. 
Corn,  141. 

—  sweet,  145. 

—  dried  corn  fodder,  147. 
sweet  corn  fodder,  148. 

—  silage,  166. 

—  stalks  or  stover,  152. 
Cowpea,  262. 
Hungarian  millet,  83. 
Kafir  corn,  100. 
Mangels,  282. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover,  207. 

Oats,  63. 

Orchard-grass,  69. 

Oats-and-peas,  186. 

Pearl  millet,  90. 

Rape,  296,  300. 

Root-crops,  278. 

Rye,  54. 

Ryegrass,  72. 

Sorghum,  126. 

Soybean,  265. 

Sugar-beet,  287. 

Teosinte,  94. 

Turnip,  290. 


Nutrients,  yield  of,  in  various  crops: 
Vetch,  271. 
Wheat,  60. 

Oats,  60-64. 

In  rotation,  17. 

As  a  nurse  crop  for  alfalfa,  217. 

West,  17. 
Oats-and-peas,  176-1S7. 

—  veteh,  187-189. 
Ohio,  corn,  22. 
Orchard-grass,  65-69. 

Northwest,  10. 

With  timothy,  16. 

Panicum  Orus-galli,  73. 

miliaceum,  73. 
Pasturage,  8. 
Pastures  and  meadows,  11,  311. 

group,  6. 

mixtures  for,  324. 

—  —  renewing,  327. 
Pasturing  -alfalfa,  230. 

Barley,  65. 
Bermuda-grass,  330. 
Brome  grass,  343. 
Clover,  alfalfa,  230. 

—  alsike,  211. 

—  crimson,  250. 

—  red,  238. 

—  white,  251. 
Cowpea,  263. 
Japan  clover,  274. 
Oats,  62. 

Orchard-grass,  69. 
Permanent  pastures,  311. 
Rape,  296. 

Rye,  48. 

Soiling  versus,  30. 

Vetch.  271. 

Wheat,  56. 
Pearl  millet,  5,  86-90. 
Penicillaria,  85. 
Pennisetum  spicatum,  73,  85. 

Pests: 

Clubroot   on    cabbage   and    kohlrabi, 
306.  310. 


INDEX 


381 


Pests,  Dodder,  216. 

Finger-aud-toe,  310. 

Plant-louse,  183. 
Phosphoric  acid  (see  Fertilizers). 

—  in  hay,  Pennsylvania  and  Illinois, 

321,  322. 
Plant-food: 

Demand,  40. 

For  summer  crops,  101. 
Plans  for  rotation,  38. 
Plant-louse,  183. 
Plaxmodiophora  lirassiccv,  310. 
Potato,  290. 

Sweet,  200. 
Preparation  of  soil,  24,  41. 

Alfalfa,  211. 

Barnyard  millet,  7ii. 

—  -  Barley,  til. 

Bermuda-grass,  330. 

—  —  Promo  grass,  '■'.'.  1. 

Broom-corn  millet,  90. 

Cabbage,  302. 

Carrot,  288. 

Clover,  alfalfa,  211. 

alsike,  2in. 

—  crimson,  214. 

Corn,  134. 

silage,  l"'l. 

Foxtail  millet,  84. 

Kafir  com,  107. 

-    -  Mangels,  280. 

Meadows,  313. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  195, 

Oats-and-peas,  177. 

Orchard  grass,  66. 

Pasture,  325. 

Rape,  293. 

Rye,  50. 

Ryegrass,  70. 

Sorghum,  123. 

Soy  1  iean,  264. 

Sugar-beet,  286. 

Ye  tell,  20!) . 

Wheat,  56. 

Principles  underlying  forage  crops,  13. 

Proso  millet,  90. 

Protein  (see  Nutrients),  6. 


Prussian  blue  pea,  176. 

Pulse  family,  it:;. 

Purple  Vienna  kohlrabi,  308 

Quadroon  cowpea,  254. 

Queen  of  Denmark  sugar  beet ,  286. 

Rape,  20,  202-300. 
Rations  : 

Balanced,  28. 

Dry,  27. 

Forage  crop,  43. 

Succulent,  27. 

Reana  luxurians,  01. 

Ri  d  bud,  17.;. 

Red  clover,  :;,  232-238. 

—  for  forage,  (i. 

—  with  corn,  I. 

R'ed  Globe  mangel,  279. 
Red-top,  10. 

—  with  timothy,  10. 
Regional  questions,  9. 
Renewing  pastures,  327. 

Bermuda-grass,  336. 

Brome  grass,  342. 
Renovator,  soil,  1."). 
Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  grass 

mixture,  203. 
Roberts,  on  Foxtail  millet,  -  I, 
Robertson  mixture,  272. 
Rool  crops  ; 

Comparison  with  other  Fodders, 275. 

Group,  6. 
Rotation: 

Cabbage,  301. 

Fast  and  West,  17. 

Fight  year,  for  hay,  321. 

Four  year,  22. 

Improvement  of,  17. 

Legume,  16.   17. 

Purpose,  ll. 
Roughage  crops,  definition,  1. 

—  dry,  for  winter,  S. 
Rural  Branching  doura,  97. 

Rural  Thoroughbred  White  Flint  corn, 

133. 
Russ  iau  Brome  grass,  ,";;;- 


;82 


INDEX 


Rutabaga  (see  Turnip),  289. 
Rye,  1,46.  54. 

With  corn,  18. 

Silage,  4.-.. 
Rye-grass,  Italian,  70-72. 

With  timothy,  16. 

Saccharine  sorghum,  9,  122. 
Sanitary  milk,  31. 

Seeding,  Land  and,  23. 
Alfalfa,  216. 
Barnyard  millet,  76. 
Barley,  65. 
Barley-and-peas,  189. 
Bermuda-grass,  .'530. 
Broad-bean,  272. 
Brome  grass,  342. 
Cabbage,  302. 
Carrot,  288- 
Clover,  alfalfa,  216. 

—  alsike,  240. 

—  crimson,  244. 

—  mammoth  red,  239. 

—  red,  234. 

—  white,  252. 
Corn,  139. 

—  dried  fodder,  146. 

—  silage,  157. 
Cowpea,  257. 
Foxtail  millet,  82. 
Japan  clover,  274. 
Kafir  corn,  110-113. 
Mangels,  281. 
Meadows,  311. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers,  194. 

Oats,  61. 

Oats-and-peas  and  vetch,  179-187. 

Orchard -grass,  66. 

Pastures,  324. 

Pearl  millet,  86. 

Rape,  294. 

Rye.  52. 

Rye-grass,  70. 

Sorghum,  123. 

Soybean,  20 1. 

Sugar-beet,  286. 
Teosinte,  94. 


Seeding,  turnip,  289. 
Vetch,  269. 

Wheat,  58. 
Setaria  Italica,  81. 
Short-top  White  kohlrabi,  308. 
Short  White  carrot,  288. 
Silage,  corn,  153-160. 

Cowpea,  193. 

Millet,  89. 

Crimson  clover,  45. 

Rje,  45. 

Sorghum,  126. 

Compared  to  stover  and  grain,  166. 

Summer,  44. 
Silo: 

Capacity,  162. 

Construction,  159. 

Pilling,  161. 

Size,  164. 
Silt,  24. 
Soil,  favorable  for  Alfalfa.  211. 

Barnyard  millet,  76. 

Barley,  64. 

Bermuda-grass,  329. 

Broad  bean,  270. 

Brome  grass,  33.8. 

Broom-corn  millet,  90. 

—  —  Cabbage,  301. 

Clover  alfalfa,  211. 

alsike,  240. 

crimson,  246. 

red,  232. 

Corn,  134. 

—  silage,  154. 

Cowpea,  253. 

Japan  clover,  273. 

Kafir  corn,  102. 

Kohlrabi,  309. 

Mangels,  280. 

Meadows,  320. 

Rape,  293. 

Rye,  50. 

—  —  Sorghum,  122. 
Vetch,  270. 

Soil,  Improving,  13. 
Inoculation,  168-172. 
Protecting,  10. 


INDEX 


383 


Soil,  Renoval  ing,  15. 
Soiling,  Advantages  of,  30. 

Definil ion  of,  2. 

Disadvantages,  31. 

Forage  crops  for,  27. 

Summer,  190. 

Versus  pasturing,  :;o. 
Sorghum,  !». 

Nun  saccharine,  'J~>. 

Saccharine,  122. 

Vulgare,  95. 
South,  forage  conditions  in,  10,  22. 

Bermuda-grass,  328. 
Southern  White  corn,  154. 
South  Carolina,  Bermuda-grass,  335. 
Smith  Dakota,  Brome  grass,  338. 
Soybean,  21,  261-266. 

In  combination,  190. 

Wiih  kafir  corn,  190. 

With  maize,  193. 

With  sorghum,  194. 
Straw,  16. 

Succulence,  Importance  of,  J. 
Succulenl  ration,  27. 
Sugar  beet,  286,  287. 
Summer  Boiling,  190. 
Sweet  corn,  1 15,  1 18. 
m,  exten  »ive,  14. 

Intensive,  17. 

Pasturage,  7. 

Rotation,  34. 

—  examples,  :'»5-37. 

Tare,  269. 
Teosinte,  73,  94. 
Thousand-fold  rye,  48. 
Timothy,  15,  24. 

Cornell,  3l!0. 

East,  17. 

West,  17. 
Top  dressing: 

Bermuda-grass,  330. 

Lime  (see  Lime),  12. 

.Meadows,  12,  318. 

Pastures,  12,  325. 
Tracy,   Professor,   on    Bermuda-grass 


Trifoliuin  hybridum,  231. 
inearnatum,  231. 

//"  ilium  ,  231. 

pratense,  231. 
pratente  /«  rentu  ,  231. 
repens,  231. 
Turnip,  289,  2«J0. 

Unknown  cowpea,  254. 

Value  of  forage  crop,  2,  5. 
Ufalfa,  225. 
B  irnyard  millet,  71. 
Barley,  65. 
Bermuda-grass,  332. 
Cabbage,  301. 
clover,  alfalfa,  22:>. 

—  alsike,  241. 

—  crimson,  217. 

—  red,  231. 
Corn,  132,  142. 

■  i .  144. 

—  dried  corn  (odder,  1 18. 

sweet,   1  18. 

—  Bilage,  165. 

—  stover,  149. 
Cowpea,  258. 
Japan  clover,  273. 

Kafir  corn,  H7. 
Kohlrabi,  308. 
Mangels,  282,  285. 
I  >at8,  62. 

<  lats-and-peas,  184. 
Pastures,  30. 
Pearl  millet,  88. 
Potato,  290. 
Rape,  293,  296. 
Rye,  18. 
Ryt  -grass,  71. 
Sorghum,  125. 
Soybean,  265. 
Sugar-beet .  287. 
Turnip,  288. 
Vetch,  271. 

Wheat,   58. 

Vegetable  matter  in  soil,  13. 
Velvet  bean,  2C  i 


384 


INDEX 


Voteh,  17,  269-271. 

With  oats,  187- 1S9. 
Vida  Faba,  272. 

sativa,  187. 
Vilmorin's    Half-sugar    Rosy  mangel, 
2S0. 

Warm-season  combinations,  190. 
Weeds  of  value,  18. 

In  pasture,  32G. 
West,  forage  conditions  in,  9. 

West  Virginia    Experiment   Station, 
meadows,  319. 
Wheat,  4,  56-6 J. 

East,  17. 

Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  22. 

Rotation,  22. 

West,  17. 
White    Flint    corn,    Rural    Thorough, 
bred,  13.-},  113. 

Green-top  sugar-beet,  286. 

Rose-top  sugar-beet,  286. 

Vienna  kohlrabi,  308. 
Winter  cover,  38. 
Wistaria,  173. 
Wonderful  cowpea,  234. 

Year — Four-year  rotation,  22. 

Five-year  rotation,  22. 
Yellow  Branching  doura,  97. 

ti  lobe  mangels,  280. 

Milo  maize,  97. 


Yellow  wood,  173. 
Yield-Alfalfa,  222. 

Barnyard  millet,  79. 

Barley,  65. 

Bermuda-grass,  332. 

Broad  or  horse-bean,  273. 

Broom-corn  millet,  92. 

Cabbage,  308. 

Clover,  alfalfa,  222. 

—  alsike,  211. 

—  crimson,  218. 

—  mammoth  red,  239. 

—  red,  236. 
Cowpea,  202. 
Kafir  corn,  100,  120. 
Mangels,  281. 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover,  207. 

Oats,  62,  64. 

Oats-and-peas,  184. 

Peari  millet,  88. 

Rape,  300. 

Rye,  53. 

Rye-grass,  71. 

Sorghum,  125. 

Soybean,  265. 

Sugar-beet,  287. 

Teosinte,  94. 

Turnip,  289. 

Vetch.  271. 

Wheat,  58. 

Zuntz,  276. 


N.C 


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